Generic placeholder image

Current Functional Foods

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 2666-8629
ISSN (Online): 2666-8637

Review Article

Smoke Points: A Crucial Factor in Cooking Oil Selection for Public Health

Author(s): Prasun Roychowdhury*, Moumita Chatterjee, Anindita Bhattacharjya and Shibani Lahiri

Volume 2, Issue 2, 2024

Published on: 04 December, 2023

Article ID: e041223224179 Pages: 8

DOI: 10.2174/0126668629273114231108210359

Price: $65

Open Access Journals Promotions 2
Abstract

Cooking oils and fats play a significant role in our daily diet and culinary practices by enhancing flavours, textures, and nutritional value. However, overheating these fats can compromise the quality and safety of cooked foods. When oils and fats exceed their smoke points, they undergo chemical breakdown, producing volatile compounds, off-flavours, and undesirable odors, including harmful substances like small chain fatty acids, trans fats, acrylamides, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. It is crucial to avoid overheating oils to mitigate the formation of these toxic substances and instead opt for those with higher smoke points for high-temperature cooking methods. The smoke point, indicating the temperature at which visible smoke is emitted, serves as a critical indicator of thermal stability and suitability for various cooking oils and fats. Therefore, understanding and considering the smoke points of different oils and fats are essential for maintaining food quality and safety in culinary practices. This review consolidates existing knowledge on the smoke points of various oils and fats and methods for determining smoke points, providing a list of fifty-one oils and fats with their respective smoke points and highlighting their applications in cooking. By considering the smoke point, chefs, cooks, and food manufacturers can select oils that optimize cooking, frying, taste, texture, flavour enhancement, salad dressings, marinades, baking, and overall safety in their culinary practices. Mindfulness of the smoke point helps prevent the degradation of nutritional value and the generation of harmful compounds during the cooking process.

Keywords: Cooking oils and fats, smoke points, culinary practices, food quality and toxicity, public health, vitamins.

Graphical Abstract
[1]
Gibson RS, Bailey KB, Gibbs M, Ferguson EL. A review of phytate, iron, zinc, and calcium concentrations in plant-based complementary foods used in low-income countries and implications for bioavailability. Food Nutr Bull 2020; 41(3): 373-96.
[PMID: 20715598]
[2]
Kris-Etherton PM, Hecker KD, Bonanome A, et al. Bioactive compounds in foods: Their role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer. Am J Med 2002; 113(9) (Suppl. 9B): 71-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(01)00995-0] [PMID: 12566142]
[3]
Kumar P, Chatli MK, Mehta N. Potential biological effects of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) on human health: A review. Pol J Food Nutr Sci 2018; 68(1): 10-21.
[4]
Singh A, Kaur K, Grewal N, Singh N. Health benefits and processing aspects of mustard oil: A review. J Food Sci Technol 2018; 55(2): 460-71.
[5]
Eyres L, Eyres MF, Chisholm A, Brown RC. Coconut oil consumption and cardiovascular risk factors in humans. Nutr Rev 2016; 74(4): 267-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuw002] [PMID: 26946252]
[6]
Huang HE, Odegaard AO, Koh WP. Consumption of edible oils and risk of cardiovascular diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Clin Nutr 2016; 35(6): 1429-38.
[PMID: 27083497]
[7]
Krajcovicová-Kudlácková M, Simoncic R, Béderová A, Babinská K, Béder I. Correlation between biochemical and clinical indicators in the antioxidant status of healthy young persons with regard to their dietary habits. Bratisl Lek Listy 2010; 111(2): 82-7.
[8]
Hassanien MF, Abdel-Razek AG, El-Shamy HA, Mohamed HM. Chemical and nutritional evaluation of soybean oil. Grasas Aceites 2014; 65(1): e002.
[9]
Schwab U, Lauritzen L, Tholstrup T, et al. Effect of the amount and type of dietary fat on cardiometabolic risk factors and risk of developing type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer: A systematic review. Food Nutr Res 2014; 58(1): 25145.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/fnr.v58.25145] [PMID: 25045347]
[10]
Choudhary M, Kumar V, Malhotra A, Kaur G. A review on health benefits of corn oil. Int J Curr Microbiol Appl Sci 2020; 9(4): 1017-26.
[11]
USDA nd. Vegetable oils. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved from https://www.choosemyplate.gov/eathealthy/fats/oils [
[12]
Pérez-Herrera A, Delgado-Lista J, Torres-Sánchez LA, Rangel-Zuñiga OA, Camargo A, Moreno-Navarrete JM. Dietary fat differentially influences regulatory endothelial function during the postprandial state in patients with metabolic syndrome: from the LIPGENE study. Atherosclerosis 2018; 269: 79-87.
[13]
Pappas A, Liakou A, Zouboulis CC. Nutrition and skin. Rev Assoc Med Bras 2017; 63(9): 785-7.
[14]
Caligiuri SPB, Aukema HM, Ravandi A, Guzman R, Dibrov E, Pierce GN. Flaxseed consumption reduces blood pressure in patients with hypertension by altering circulating oxylipins via an α-linolenic acid-induced inhibition of soluble epoxide hydrolase. Hypertension 2014; 64(1): 53-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.114.03179] [PMID: 24777981]
[15]
Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G. Monounsaturated fatty acids, olive oil and health status: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Lipids Health Dis 2021; 20(1): 1-16.
[PMID: 33407491]
[16]
Martínez-González MA, Dominguez LJ, Delgado-Rodríguez M. Olive oil consumption and risk of CHD and/or stroke: A meta-analysis of case–control, cohort and intervention studies. Br J Nutr 2014; 112(2): 248-59.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0007114514000713] [PMID: 24775425]
[17]
Jones M, Miller C. The impact of frying with different oils on the formation of volatile compounds. Int J Food Sci Technol 2016; 51(9): 2098-107.
[18]
Tareke E, Rydberg P, Karlsson P, Eriksson S, Törnqvist M. Analysis of acrylamide, a carcinogen formed in heated foodstuffs. J Agric Food Chem 2002; 50(17): 4998-5006.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf020302f] [PMID: 12166997]
[19]
Orsavova J, Misurcova L, Ambrozova J, Vicha R, Mlcek J. Fatty acids composition of vegetable oils and its contribution to dietary energy intake and dependence of cardiovascular mortality on dietary intake of fatty acids. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16(12): 12871-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms160612871] [PMID: 26057750]
[20]
Akoh CC, Ed. Food lipids: chemistry, nutrition, and biotechnology. CRC press 2017.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781315151854]
[21]
IUPAC O International union of pure and applied chemistry. Stand Meth Analy Oil Fat Deriv 1992.
[22]
Marchand V. Trans fats: What physicians should know. Paediatr Child Health 2010; 15(6): 373-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pch/15.6.373] [PMID: 21731420]
[23]
Force T F T. ARCHIVED-transforming the food supply: Report of the trans fat task force In: [Health Canada, 2006] 2006.
[24]
Mensink RP, Katan MB. Effect of dietary trans fatty acids on high-density and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in healthy sub-jects. N Engl J Med 1990; 323(7): 439-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199008163230703] [PMID: 2374566]
[25]
Mozaffarian D, Katan MB, Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 2006; 354(15): 1601-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra054035] [PMID: 16611951]
[26]
Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, et al. Dietary fats and the risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 2003; 60(2): 194-200.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archneur.60.2.194] [PMID: 12580703]
[27]
Kohlmeier L, Simonsen N, van ’t Veer P, et al. Adipose tissue trans fatty acids and breast cancer in the european community multicenter study on antioxidants, myocardial infarction, and breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1997; 6(9): 705-10.
[PMID: 9298578]
[28]
Hornstra G. Essential fatty acids in mothers and their neonates. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 71(5) (Suppl.): 1262S-9S.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/71.5.1262s] [PMID: 10799400]
[29]
Elias SL, Innis SM. Infant plasma trans, n−6, and n−3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids are related to maternal plasma fatty acids, length of gestation, and birth weight and length. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 73(4): 807-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/73.4.807] [PMID: 11273857]
[30]
Chavarro JE, Rich-Edwards JW, Rosner BA, Willett WC. Dietary fatty acid intakes and the risk of ovulatory infertility. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 85(1): 231-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/85.1.231] [PMID: 17209201]
[31]
Yli-Jama P, Meyer HE, Ringstad J, Pedersen JI. Serum free fatty acid pattern and risk of myocardial infarction: A case-control study. J Intern Med 2002; 251(1): 19-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2796.2002.00922.x] [PMID: 11851861]
[32]
Sugano M, Ikeda I. Metabolic interactions between essential and trans-fatty acids. Curr Opin Lipidol 1996; 7(1): 38-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00041433-199602000-00009] [PMID: 8925188]
[33]
Slattery ML, Benson J, Ma KN, Schaffer D, Potter JD. Trans-fatty acids and colon cancer. Nutr Cancer 2001; 39(2): 170-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327914nc392_2] [PMID: 11759276]
[34]
Salmerón J, Hu FB, Manson JE, et al. Dietary fat intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 73(6): 1019-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/73.6.1019] [PMID: 11382654]
[35]
Meyer KA, Kushi LH, Jacobs DR Jr, Folsom AR. Dietary fat and incidence of type 2 diabetes in older Iowa women. Diabetes Care 2001; 24(9): 1528-35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.24.9.1528] [PMID: 11522694]
[36]
Ghafoorunissa G. Role of trans fatty acids in health and challenges to their reduction in Indian foods. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2008; 17 (Suppl. 1): 212-5.
[PMID: 18296340]
[37]
Risérus U, Arner P, Brismar K, Vessby B. Treatment with dietary trans10cis12 conjugated linoleic acid causes isomer-specific insulin resistance in obese men with the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care 2002; 25(9): 1516-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.25.9.1516] [PMID: 12196420]
[38]
Kavanagh K, Jones KL, Sawyer J, et al. Trans fat diet induces abdominal obesity and changes in insulin sensitivity in monkeys. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2007; 15(7): 1675-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/oby.2007.200] [PMID: 17636085]
[39]
Dhaka V, Gulia N, Ahlawat KS, Khatkar BS. Trans fats—sources, health risks and alternative approach - A review. J Food Sci Technol 2011; 48(5): 534-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-010-0225-8] [PMID: 23572785]
[40]
Weiland SK, von Mutius E. HiJsing A, Asher MI. ISAAC Steering Committee. Intake of trans fatty acids and prevalence of childhood asthma and allergies in Europe. Lancet 1999; 353(9169): 2040-1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(99)01609-8] [PMID: 10376626]
[41]
Willett W, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, et al. Intake of trans fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among women. Lancet 1993; 341(8845): 581-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(93)90350-P] [PMID: 8094827]
[42]
Mahfouz M. Effect of dietary trans fatty acids on the delta 5, delta 6 and delta 9 desaturases of rat liver microsomes in vivo. Acta Biol Med Ger 1981; 40(12): 1699-705.
[PMID: 7345825]
[43]
McNamara RK, Hahn CG, Jandacek R, et al. Selective deficits in the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid in the postmortem orbito-frontal cortex of patients with major depressive disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 62(1): 17-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.08.026] [PMID: 17188654]
[44]
Golomb BA, Bui AK. A fat to forget: Trans fat consumption and memory. PLoS One 2015; 10(6): e0128129.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0128129] [PMID: 26083739]
[45]
Melnik B. Linking diet to acne metabolomics, inflammation, and comedogenesis: An update. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol 2015; 8: 371-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/CCID.S69135] [PMID: 26203267]
[46]
Xiong RG, Zhou DD, Wu SX, et al. Health benefits and side effects of short-chain fatty acids. Foods 2022; 11(18): 2863.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods11182863] [PMID: 36140990]
[47]
Kumar J, Das S, Teoh SL. Dietary acrylamide and the risks of developing cancer: Facts to ponder. Front Nutr 2018; 5: 14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2018.00014] [PMID: 29541638]
[48]
Rice JM. The carcinogenicity of acrylamide. Mutat Res Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 2005; 580(1-2): 3-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mrgentox.2004.09.008] [PMID: 15668103]
[49]
Besaratinia A, Pfeifer GP. A review of mechanisms of acrylamide carcinogenicity. Carcinogenesis 2006; 28(3): 519-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/bgm006] [PMID: 17234719]
[50]
LoPachin RM, Ross JF, Lehning EJ. Nerve terminals as the primary site of acrylamide action: A hypothesis. Neurotoxicology 2002; 23(1): 43-59.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0161-813X(01)00074-2] [PMID: 12164547]
[51]
LoPachin RM, Balaban CD, Ross JF. Acrylamide axonopathy revisited. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2003; 188(3): 135-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0041-008X(02)00072-8] [PMID: 12729714]
[52]
Pennisi M, Malaguarnera G, Puglisi V, Vinciguerra L, Vacante M, Malaguarnera M. Neurotoxicity of acrylamide in exposed workers. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2013; 10(9): 3843-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10093843] [PMID: 23985770]
[53]
Sakamoto J, Hashimoto K. Reproductive toxicity of acrylamide and related compounds in mice? effects on fertility and sperm morphology. Arch Toxicol 1986; 59(4): 201-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00290538] [PMID: 3827588]
[54]
Costa LG, Deng H, Gregotti C, et al. Comparative studies on the neuro- and reproductive toxicity of acrylamide and its epoxide metabolite glycidamide in the rat. Neurotoxicology 1992; 13(1): 219-24.
[PMID: 1508423]
[55]
Besaratinia A, Pfeifer GP. Genotoxicity of acrylamide and glycidamide. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004; 96(13): 1023-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djh186] [PMID: 15240786]
[56]
Mei N, McDaniel LP, Dobrovolsky VN, et al. The genotoxicity of acrylamide and glycidamide in big blue rats. Toxicol Sci 2010; 115(2): 412-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfq069] [PMID: 20200216]
[57]
Carere A. Genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of acrylamide: A critical review. Ann Ist Super Sanita 2006; 42(2): 144-55.
[PMID: 17033134]
[58]
Rengarajan T, Rajendran P, Nandakumar N, Lokeshkumar B, Rajendran P, Nishigaki I. Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with special focus on cancer. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2015; 5(3): 182-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2221-1691(15)30003-4]
[59]
Burchiel SW, Gao J. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and the immune system. Encyclopedia Immunotoxicology 2014.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27786-3_1192-4]
[60]
Gedik S, Erdemli ME, Gul M, et al. Hepatoprotective effects of crocin on biochemical and histopathological alterations following acrylamide-induced liver injury in Wistar rats. Biomed Pharmacother 2017; 95: 764-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2017.08.139] [PMID: 28892787]
[61]
Ghorbel I, Elwej A, Chaabene M, et al. Effects of acrylamide graded doses on metallothioneins I and II induction and DNA fragmentation: Bochemical and histomorphological changes in the liver of adult rats. Toxicol Ind Health 2017; 33(8): 611-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0748233717696613] [PMID: 28490250]
[62]
Yuan JM, Ross RK, Wang XL, Gao YT. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and lung cancer in Shanghai, China. Occup Environ Med 2002; 59(12): 846-51.
[63]
World Health Organization.Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, selected non-heterocyclic. Environ Health Criteria 1998; 202.
[64]
Bach PB, Kelley MJ, Tate RC, McCrory DC. Screening for lung cancer: A review of the current literature. Chest 2003; 123(1) (Suppl.): 72S-82S.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.123.1_suppl.72S] [PMID: 12527566]
[65]
Olsson AC, Fevotte J, Fletcher T, et al. Occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and lung cancer risk: A multicenter study in Europe. Occup Environ Med 2010; 67(2): 98-103.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oem.2009.046680] [PMID: 19773276]
[66]
Diggs DL, Huderson AC, Harris KL, et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and digestive tract cancers: A perspective. J Environ Sci Health Part C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev 2011; 29(4): 324-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10590501.2011.629974] [PMID: 22107166]
[67]
Abdel-Shafy H I, Mansour M S. A review on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: source, environmental impact, effect on human health and remediation. Egyptian journal of petroleum 2016; 25(1): 107-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2015.03.011]
[68]
Plísková M, Vondrácek J, Vojtěšek B, Kozubík A, Machala M. Deregulation of cell proliferation by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in human breast carcinoma MCF-7 cells reflects both genotoxic and nongenotoxic events. Toxicol Sci 2004; 83(2): 246-56.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfi040] [PMID: 15548639]
[69]
Pokorný J. Are natural antioxidants better – and safer – than synthetic antioxidants? Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 2007; 109(6): 629-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.200700064]
[70]
Smith JP, Daifas DP, El-Khoury W, Koukoutsis J. Thermal Degradation of Edible Oils. In: Encyclopedia of Food Chemistry. Elsevier 2018; pp. 418-25.
[71]
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) ISO 2592:2011 Animal and vegetable fats and oils - Determination of the smoke point. In: Geneva, Switzerland: ISO 2011.
[72]
American Oil Chemists’ Society (AOCS) AOCS Cc 9a-48: Determination of the Smoke Point of Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils. In: Urbana, IL: AOCS 2017.
[73]
ASTM International ASTM D1322-18: Standard Test Method for Smoke Point of Kerosene and Aviation Turbine Fuel West Con-shohocken. PA: ASTM International 2018.
[74]
United States Pharmacopeial Convention (USP) Chapter Loss on Drying, Chapter Residue on Ignition, and Chapter Water Determination The United States Pharmacopeia 42 (USP 42). Rockville, MD: USP 2019.
[75]
Almonds C. Almond Oil. 2021. Available from: https://www.almonds.com/consumers/products/retail-oil
[76]
Sun Y, Lapsley K. Apricot Kernel Oil. In: Lapsley K, Nam SK, Eds. Aromatherapy, Herbal Remedies, and Essential Oils for Everyday Wellness. Sterling Publishing 2011; pp. 78-9.
[77]
Moroccan Elixir Argan Oil nd Available from: https://moroccanelixir.com/
[78]
Shahidi F, Ambigaipalan P, Eds. Avocado Oil Functional Foods and Beverages. (2nd ed.). CRC Press 2018; pp. 31-3.
[79]
de Oliveira RAM. Chemical composition and smoke point of beef tallow (bos taurus) rendered from fresh trim. J Am Oil Chem Soc 2019; 96(3): 277-86.
[80]
Law J, Rhee J. Butter. In Edible Oleogels: Structure and Health Implications In. Springer 2015; pp. 97-104.
[81]
Gertz C, Klostermann A. Vegetable oils in food technology: Composition, properties, and uses. John Wiley & Sons 2011.
[82]
Gold R. Fat: An appreciation of a misunderstood ingredient, with recipes. Little, Brown and Company 2015.
[83]
Hayes KC, Khosla P, Pronczuk A, Eds. Fats and oils: Formulating and processing for applications. (3rd ed.), CRC Press 2012.
[84]
Detwiler SB Jr, Markley KS. Smoke, flash, and fire points of soybean and other vegetable oils. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1940; 17(2): 39-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02543003]
[85]
Agarwal P, Malhotra S. Indian foods: Composition and nutritional values. (2nd ed.), CRC Press 2016.
[86]
Lambelet P. Grapeseed Oil. In: Caballero B, Finglas PM, Toldrá F, Eds. Encyclopedia of Food and Health. Academic Press 2016; Vol. 2: pp. 464-8.
[87]
Karleskind A, Moretton J. Hazelnut oil. In: Shahidi F, Ed. Bailey’s industrial oil and fat products. (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons 2016; Vol. 2: pp. 469-81.
[88]
Cert A, Bargalló M. Olive oil. In: Shahidi F, Ed. Bailey’s industrial oil and fat products. (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons 2008; Vol. 2: pp. 149-244.
[89]
Pratt DE, Hudson BJF. Natural antioxidants not exploited commercially. In: Hudson BJF, Ed. Food antioxidants. Elsevier 1990; pp. 273-308.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-0753-9_5]
[90]
Liang Y. Comparison of lipids composition and antioxidant capacity of tea seed oils obtained by different extraction methods. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 2012; 114(10): 1149-56.
[91]
Shrivastava M, Gautam A. Ghee: An indian nutritional treasure. J Nutr Food Sci 2018; 8(1): 1-3.
[92]
Afoakwa EO. Chocolate science and technology. Wiley-Blackwell 2010.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444319880]
[93]
Jha AK. Kokum butter. Handbook of fruit science and technology: Production, composition, storage, and processing. In: Salunkhe DK, Desai BB, Eds. CRC Press. 2015; pp. 675-84.
[94]
Wang S, Xu S. Mongolian Cuisine: Recipes from Hunnu Mongolia. Independently Published 2019.
[95]
Holson L. 2000.Inuit Seek Ban on Seal Oil Imports. The New York Times Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/17/world/inuit-seek-ban-on-seal-oil-imports.html
[96]
Nair A. Emu Oil: Chemistry and Application. In: Essential Oils in Food Preservation, Flavor and Safety. Academic Press 2016; pp. 249-58.
[97]
Martin RA. Mink production. In: Chavanne DG, Halbach GC, Eds. Wild mammals in captivity: Principles and techniques for zoo management. (2nd ed.). University of chicago press 2016; pp. 461-76.
[98]
Lee K, Shibamoto T, Lee K. The effect of heat on the stability of triacylglycerols and fatty acid methyl esters. Food Chem 2013; 141(4): 3934-40.
[99]
Smith JP, White PJ. Vegetable oil temperature and time of heating affects product volatiles. J Am Oil Chem Soc 2017; 94(1): 43-52.
[100]
Johnson ER, Miller CJ. The effect of frying oils on flavor. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 2018; 120(1): 1700207.
[101]
World Health Organization Countdown to 2023: WHO report on global trans fat elimination 2021 2021.

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy