Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Infectious Disorders - Drug Targets

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1871-5265
ISSN (Online): 2212-3989

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Appropriate Use of Antibiotics for the Management of Respiratory Tract Infections

Author(s): Himanshu Raghav, Prachi Tayal, Rina Das and Dinesh Kumar Mehta*

Volume 22, Issue 5, 2022

Published on: 29 April, 2022

Article ID: e180122200335 Pages: 11

DOI: 10.2174/1871526522666220118122516

Price: $65

Abstract

Lower Respiratory Tract Infections (LRTIs) and Upper Respiratory Tract Infections (URTIs) cause high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Lower respiratory tract infections are generally more serious than upper infections. Antibiotics are often inappropriately prescribed for patients with RTI.

Inappropriate utilization of antibiotics, specifically the broad spectrum in respiratory tract infection, results in resistance to antibiotics. The common use of antibiotics is the prime reason for the spread of drug-resistant bacterial strains, which not only results in expensive treatments but also causes a high rate of morbidity and mortality due to undesired adverse effects of the drug.

A literature survey was performed using PubMed, Science Direct, and Web of Science search engines. One hundred forty-five papers were retrieved, and more than 100 were included in this review.

This article describes the overview and diagnosis of respiratory tract infections and the plethora of antibiotics that have been used in the management of RTIs.

Keywords: Antibiotics, diagnosis, LRTIs, management, resistance, strains, URTIs.

Graphical Abstract

[1]
World Health Organization. Global surveillance, prevention and control of chronic respiratory diseases A comprehensive approach. Geneva: WHO 2007.
[2]
Burney PG, Patel J, Newson R, Minelli C, Naghavi M. Global and regional trends in COPD mortality, 1990-2010. Eur Respir J 2015; 45(5): 1239-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00142414] [PMID: 25837037]
[3]
Pearce N, Aït-Khaled N, Beasley R, et al. Worldwide trends in the prevalence of asthma symptoms: phase III of the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC). Thorax 2007; 62(9): 758-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/thx.2006.070169] [PMID: 17504817]
[4]
Pneumonia: The forgotten killer of children. Geneva, The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)/ World Health Organization (WHO) 2006.
[5]
Global Tuberculosis Report. Geneva: World Health Organization 2016.
[6]
Torre LA, Bray F, Siegel RL, Ferlay J, Lortet-Tieulent J, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics, 2012. CA Cancer J Clin 2015; 65(2): 87-108.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3322/caac.21262] [PMID: 25651787]
[7]
World Health Organization World Health Statistics. France 2011.
[8]
Ruuskanen O, Lahti E, Jennings LC, Murdoch DR. Viral pneumonia. Lancet 2011; 377(9773): 1264-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61459-6] [PMID: 21435708]
[9]
Kotwani A, Holloway K, Chaudhury RR. Methodology for surveillance of antimicrobials use among out-patients in Delhi. Indian J Med Res 2009; 129(5): 555-60.
[PMID: 19675384]
[10]
GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators, Global, regional, and national life expectancy, allcause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980–2015: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015; 388: 1459-544.
[11]
Loomis D, Huang W, Chen G. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) evaluation of the carcinogenicity of outdoor air pollution: focus on China. Chin J Cancer 2014; 33(4): 189-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5732/cjc.014.10028] [PMID: 24694836]
[12]
Teng C, Leong K, Aljunid S, Cheah M. Antibiotic prescription in upper respiratory tract infections. Asia Pac Fam Med 2004; 3(12): 3845-57.
[13]
Ray O’Connor. Jane O’Doherty, Andrew O’Regan, Colum Dunne. Antibiotic use for acute respiratory tract infections (ARTI) in primary care. Irish J Med Sci 2018; 187: 969-86.
[14]
Cebotarenco N, Bush PJ. Reducing antibiotics for colds and flu: a student-taught program. Health Educ Res 2008; 23(1): 146-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/her/cym008] [PMID: 17363360]
[15]
Green R. Symptomatic treatment of upper respiratory tract symptoms in children. S Afr Fam Pract 2006; 48(4): 14-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20786204.2006.10873374]
[16]
National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence Prescribing of antibiotics for self-limiting respiratory tract infections in adults and children in primary care. Clinical Guideline 69 London: NICE 2008.
[17]
Alumran A, Hurst C, Hou X. Antibiotics Overuse in children with upper respiratory tract infections in Saudi Arabia: Risk factors and potential interventions. Clin Med Diag 2011; 1(1): 8-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5923/j.cmd.20110101.02]
[18]
Truter I. A review of drug utilization studies and methodologies. Jordan J Pharm Sci 2010; 1(2): 91-104.
[19]
Leekha S, Terrell CL, Edson RS. General principles of antimicrobial therapy. Mayo Clin Proc 2011; 86(2): 156-67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4065/mcp.2010.0639] [PMID: 21282489]
[20]
Thomas M, Paul AB. Upper respiratory tract infection. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing 2020; pp. 121-46.
[21]
Fahey T, Stocks N, Thomas T. Systematic review of the treatment of upper respiratory tract infection. Arch Dis Child 1998; 79(3): 225-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.79.3.225] [PMID: 9875017]
[22]
Nandimath MK, Ahuja S. Drug prescribing pattern in upper respiratory tract infection in children aged 1-14 years. Int J Pharma Bio Sci 2012; 3(1): 299-308.
[23]
Khan IA, Shobha Rani RH, Subramanyam G. Efficacy and safety of azithromycin with various cephalosporins used in treatment of lower respiratory tract infection. Indian J Pharm Practic 2009; 1(2): 53-61.
[24]
Welte T, Torres A, Nathwani D. Clinical and economic burden of community-acquired pneumonia among adults in Europe. Thorax 2012; 67(1): 71-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/thx.2009.129502] [PMID: 20729232]
[25]
Drijkoningen JJ, Rohde GG. Pneumococcal infection in adults: burden of disease. Clin Microbiol Infect 2014; 20(5)(Suppl. 5): 45-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1469-0691.12461] [PMID: 24313448]
[26]
Piedimonte G, Perez MK. Respiratory syncytial virus infection and bronchiolitis. Pediatr Rev 2014; 35(12): 519-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/pir.35-12-519] [PMID: 25452661]
[27]
Gwaltney JM Jr, Winther B, Patrie JT, Hendley JO. Combined antiviral-antimediator treatment for the common cold. J Infect Dis 2002; 186(2): 147-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/341455] [PMID: 12134249]
[28]
Arroll B. Common cold BMJ Clin Evid 2008; 1-9.
[29]
Schappert SM, Burt CW. Ambulatory care visits to physician offices, hospital outpatient departments, and emergency departments. United States, 1997. Vital Health Stat 1999; 13(143): 1-39.
[30]
Simasek M, Blandino DA. Treatment of the common cold. Am Fam Physician 2007; 75(4): 515-20.
[PMID: 17323712]
[31]
Kenealy T, Arroll B. Antibiotics for the common cold and acute purulent rhinitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; (6): CD000247.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD000247.pub3] [PMID: 23733381]
[32]
Tan T, Little P, Stokes T. Guideline Development Group Antibiotic prescribing for self limiting respiratory tract infections in primary care: summary of NICE guidance. BMJ 2008; 337(23): a437.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a437] [PMID: 18650239]
[33]
Das RR, Singh M. Oral zinc for the common cold. JAMA 2014; 311(14): 1440-1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.1404] [PMID: 24715076]
[34]
Mary T. Caserta. Acute Laryngitis. In: Mandell D, Bennett JE, Eds. Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 2015; pp. 760-1.
[35]
Reveiz L, Cardona AF. Antibiotics for acute laryngitis in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; 15(5): CD004783.
[PMID: 26002823]
[36]
Gupta G, Mahajan K. Acute Laryngitis 2020 01-9.
[37]
Järvenpää P, Arkkila P, Aaltonen LM. Globus pharyngeus: a review of etiology, diagnostics, and treatment. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2018; 275(8): 1945-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00405-018-5041-1] [PMID: 29943257]
[38]
BakarMuhamad Abu Seraj Judy McKimm, HaqueZohurul, MajumderAnwaruAzim, HaqueMainul. Chronic tonsillitis and biofilms: A brief overview of treatment modalities. J Inflamm Res 2018; 11: 329-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/JIR.S162486]
[39]
Frost HM, McLean HQ, Chow BDW. Variability in antibiotic prescribing for upper respiratory illnesses by provider specialty. J Pediatr 2018; 203: 76-85.e8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2018.07.044] [PMID: 30195553]
[40]
Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network.SIGN Clinical Guideline 117: Management of Sore Throat and Indications for Tonsillectomy: A National Clinical Guideline. Edinburgh. 2010; pp. 47- 69.
[41]
Alzahrani MS, Maneno MK, Daftary MN, Wingate L, Ettienne EB. Factors associated with prescribing broad-spectrum antibiotics for children with upper respiratory tract infections in ambulatory care settings. Clin Med Insights Pediatr 2018; 12: 1179556518784300.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1179556518784300] [PMID: 30046262]
[42]
Gottlieb M, Long B, Koyfman A. Clinical mimics: an emergency medicine-focused review of streptococcal pharyngitis mimics. J Emerg Med 2018; 54(5): 619-29.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2018.01.031] [PMID: 29523424]
[43]
Brennan-Krohn T, Ozonoff A, Sandora TJ. Adherence to guidelines for testing and treatment of children with pharyngitis: a retrospective study. BMC Pediatr 2018; 18(1): 43-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12887-018-0988-z] [PMID: 29426305]
[44]
Bird C, Winzor G, Lemon K, Moffat A, Newton T, Gray J. A pragmatic study to evaluate the use of a rapid diagnostic test to detect group a streptococcal pharyngitis in children with the aim of reducing antibiotic use in a uk emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care 2018; 10: 1097-110.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/PEC.0000000000001560] [PMID: 30045356]
[45]
Piltcher OB, Kosugi EM, Sakano E, et al. How to avoid the inappropriate use of antibiotics in upper respiratory tract infections? A position statement from an expert panel. Rev Bras Otorrinolaringol (Engl Ed) 2018; 84(3): 265-79.
[PMID: 29588108]
[46]
Centre for Disease Control and Prevention. Summary health statistics for U.S. adults: National Health Interview Survey 2009; 411- 34
[47]
Thomas M, Yawn BP, Price D, Lund V, Mullol J, Fokkens W. EPOS primary care guidelines: European position paper on the primary care diagnosis and management of rhinosinusitis and nasal polyps. Prim Care Respir J 2008; 17(2): 79-89.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3132/pcrj.2008.00029] [PMID: 18438594]
[48]
Rosenfeld RM, Andes D, Bhattacharyya N, et al. Clinical practice guideline: adult sinusitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2007; •••: 137-59.
[49]
Ramakrishnan K, Sparks RA, Berryhill WE. Diagnosis and treatment of otitis media. Am Fam Physician 2007; 76(11): 1650-8.
[PMID: 18092706]
[50]
Sillanpää S, Oikarinen S, Sipilä M, et al. Moraxella catarrhalis might be more common than expected in acute otitis media in young finnish children. J Clin Microbiol 2016; 54(9): 2373-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01146-16] [PMID: 27413187]
[51]
Meherali S, Campbell A, Hartling L, Scott S. Understanding parents’ experiences and information needs on pediatric acute otitis media: a qualitative study. J Patient Exp 2019; 6(1): 345-61.
[52]
Protasova IN. Per’yanovaOV, Podgrushnaya TS. Acute otitis media in the children: etiology and the problems of antibacterial therapy. Vestn Otorinolaringol 2017; •••: 1-9.
[53]
Schilder AG, Chonmaitree T, Cripps AW, et al. Otitis media. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2016; 2(1): 16063-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2016.63] [PMID: 27604644]
[54]
Kathryn M, Blackwood A. Heather lB, James MC, Van H, Peter PP. Otitis media: Diagnosis and treatment. Am Fam Physician 2013; 88(7): 435-40.
[55]
University of Michigan Health System. Guidelines for clinical care: Otitis Media. 2012.
[56]
Becker LA, Hom J, Villasis-Keever M, et al. Beta2 agonists for acute bronchitis The Cochrane Library. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2015.
[57]
Gencay M, Roth M, Christ-Crain M, Mueller B, Tamm M, Stolz D. Single and multiple viral infections in lower respiratory tract infection. Respiration 2010; 80(6): 560-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000321355] [PMID: 20861611]
[58]
Fischer J, Dethlefsen U. Efficacy of cineole in patients suffering from acute bronchitis: A Placebo-controlled double-blind trial. Cough 2013; 9(1): 25-39.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1745-9974-9-25] [PMID: 24261680]
[59]
Zoorob R, Sidani MA, Fremont RD, Kihlberg C. Antibiotic use in acute upper respiratory tract infections. Am Fam Physician 2012; 86(9): 817-22.
[PMID: 23113461]
[60]
Kinkade S, Md M, Long NA, Md AB. University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri. Am Fam Physician 2016; 94(7): 560-5.
[PMID: 27929206]
[61]
File TM Jr, Marrie TJ. Burden of community-acquired pneumonia in North American adults. Postgrad Med 2010; 122(2): 130-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3810/pgm.2010.03.2130] [PMID: 20203464]
[62]
Trotter CL, Stuart JM, George R, Miller E. Increasing hospital admissions for pneumonia, England. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14(5): 727-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1405.071011] [PMID: 18439353]
[63]
Ewig S, Birkner N, Strauss R, et al. New perspectives on community-acquired pneumonia in 388 406 patients. Results from a nationwide mandatory performance measurement programme in healthcare quality. Thorax 2009; 64(12): 1062-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/thx.2008.109785] [PMID: 19454409]
[64]
Thomsen RW, Riis A, Nørgaard M, et al. Rising incidence and persistently high mortality of hospitalized pneumonia: a 10-year population-based study in Denmark. J Intern Med 2006; 259(4): 410-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2006.01629.x] [PMID: 16594909]
[65]
Cillóniz C, Ewig S, Polverino E, et al. Microbial aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia and its relation to severity. Thorax 2011; 66(4): 340-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/thx.2010.143982] [PMID: 21257985]
[66]
Cillóniz C, Polverino E, Ewig S, et al. Impact of age and comorbidity on cause and outcome in community-acquired pneumonia. Chest 2013; 144(3): 999-1007.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.13-0062] [PMID: 23670047]
[67]
Höffken G, Lorenz J, Kern W, et al. Guidelines of the Paul-Ehrlich-Society of Chemotherapy, the German Respiratory Diseases Society, the German Infectious Diseases Society and of the Competence Network CAPNETZ for the Management of Lower Respiratory Tract Infections and Community-acquired Pneumonia. Pneumologie 2010; 64(3): 149-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0029-1243910] [PMID: 20180179]
[68]
Arroll B, Kenealy T. Antibiotics for the common cold and acute purulent rhinitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005; 3(3): CD000247.
[PMID: 16034850]
[69]
Cooper RJ, Hoffman JR, Bartlett JG, et al. American Academy of Family Physicians. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for acute pharyngitis in adults: background. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134(6): 509-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-134-6-200103200-00019] [PMID: 11255530]
[70]
Shulman ST, Bisno AL, Clegg HW, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55(10): 1279-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cis847] [PMID: 23091044]
[71]
Hickner JM, Bartlett JG, Besser RE, Gonzales R, Hoffman JR, Sande MA. American Academy of Family Physicians. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for acute rhinosinusitis in adults: background. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134(6): 498-505.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-134-6-200103200-00017] [PMID: 11255528]
[72]
Chow AW, Benninger MS, Brook I, et al. IDSA clinical practice guideline for acute bacterial rhinosinusitis in children and adults. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54(8): e72-e112.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cis370] [PMID: 22438350]
[73]
Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I. Clinical practice guideline (update): adult sinusitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2015; 152: 1-39.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0194599815572097]
[74]
Slavin RG, Spector SL, Bernstein IL, et al. American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. The diagnosis and management of sinusitis: A practice parameter update. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005; 116(6)(Suppl.): S13-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2005.09.048] [PMID: 16416688]
[75]
Aring AM, Chan MM. Acute rhinosinusitis in adults. Am Fam Physician 2011; 83(9): 1057-63.
[PMID: 21534518]
[76]
American Academy of Pediatrics Subcommittee on Management of Acute Otitis Media Diagnosis and management of acute otitis media. Pediatrics 2004; 113(5): 1451-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.113.5.1451] [PMID: 15121972]
[77]
American Academy of Family Physicians, American Academy of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, American Academy of Pediatrics Subcommittee on Otitis Media with Effusion. Otitis media with effusion. Pediatrics 2004; 113(5): 1412-29.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.113.5.1412] [PMID: 15121966]
[78]
Hoberman A, Paradise JL, Reynolds EA, Urkin J. Efficacy of Auralgan for treating ear pain in children with acute otitis media. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1997; 151(7): 675-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.1997.02170440037006] [PMID: 9232040]
[79]
Brenda L. Natal, Jennifer H Chao. Acute Otitis Media Empiric Therapy, Otolaryngology and Facial Plastic Surgery 2019. Available from: https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2012609-overview
[80]
Albert RK, Connett J, Bailey WC, et al. Azithromycin for prevention of exacerbations of COPD. N Engl J Med 2011; 365(8): 689-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1104623] [PMID: 21864166]
[81]
Sobol SE, Schloss MD, Tewfik TL. Sinus, acute, medical treatment 2005 601-21.
[82]
Tse J, Cosep ML, Aminimanizani A, Gill MA. Community acquired pneumonia. California Pharmacist 2002-2003; (Winter): 54-65.
[83]
Soares GM, Figueiredo LC, Faveri M, Cortelli SC, Duarte PM, Feres M. Mechanisms of action of systemic antibiotics used in periodontal treatment and mechanisms of bacterial resistance to these drugs. J Appl Oral Sci 2012; 20(3): 295-309.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1678-77572012000300002] [PMID: 22858695]
[84]
Community-acquired pneumonia, management, NDA, AVELOX 2016; 1-27
[85]
File TM Jr. Overview of community-acquired respiratory tract infectionsCommunity-Acquired Respiratory Infections: Antimicrobial Management. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc 2003; pp. 1-30.
[86]
Stephen B. Treating community-acquired bacterial respiratory tract infections. J Fam Pract 2005; 54(4): 357-64.
[87]
Park JH, Park SJ, Kim YH, Park MH. Sensorineural hearing loss: a complication of acute otitis media in adults. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2014; 271(7): 1879-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00405-013-2675-x] [PMID: 23990061]
[88]
Udaykumarpadmaja. Medicinal pharmacology. 5th edition. new delhi: CBS publication and distributors Pvt Ltd 2014; pp. 462-97.
[89]
Goossens H, Ferech M, Vander Stichele R, Elseviers M, Group EP. Outpatient antibiotic use in Europe and association with resistance: a cross-national database study. Lancet 2005; 365(9459): 579-87.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)17907-0] [PMID: 15708101]
[90]
Finch R. Innovation - drugs and diagnostics. J Antimicrob Chemother 2007; 60(1)(Suppl. 1): i79-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkm165] [PMID: 17656390]
[91]
Gujar A, Tiwari P. Antimicrobial drug use in hospitalized children. CRIPS 2008; 9(1): 2-6.
[92]
van den Broek d’Obrenan J, Verheij TJ, Numans ME, van der Velden AW. Antibiotic use in Dutch primary care: relation between diagnosis, consultation and treatment. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69(6): 1701-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dku005] [PMID: 24508898]
[93]
Petersen I, Hayward AC, Subgroup SS. Antibacterial prescribing in primary care. J Antimicrob Chemother 2007; 60(1)(Suppl. 1): i43-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkm156] [PMID: 17656380]
[94]
VinutnaGogineni. BabjiMallela, Namburi Reshma, Kumari Raj. Drug utilization study in patients with acute respiratory tract infections at a tertiary care hospital in Bhimavaram. India Int J Adv Res Develop 2018; 3(9): 35-42.
[95]
Shapiro DJ, Hicks LA, Pavia AT, Hersh AL. Antibiotic prescribing for adults in ambulatory care in the USA, 2007-09. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69(1): 234-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkt301] [PMID: 23887867]
[96]
GirmaMamo. AbebaTeshome. Evaluation of antibiotics use in the treatment of upper respiratory tract infection in Bedele district hospital. Southwest Ethiopia J Sci Innov Res 2017; 6(1): 38-43.
[97]
Barnett ML, Linder JA. Antibiotic prescribing for adults with acute bronchitis in the United States, 1996-2010. JAMA 2014; 311(19): 2020-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.286141] [PMID: 24846041]
[98]
Butler CC, Kelly MJ, Hood K, et al. Antibiotic prescribing for discoloured sputum in acute cough/lower respiratory tract infection. Eur Respir J 2011; 38(1): 119-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00133910] [PMID: 21406512]
[99]
Kotwani A, Wattal C, Katewa S, Joshi PC, Holloway K. Factors influencing primary care physicians to prescribe antibiotics in Delhi India. Fam Pract 2010; 27(6): 684-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fampra/cmq059] [PMID: 20660529]
[100]
Sivagnanam G, Thirumalaikolundusubramanian P, Mohanasundaram J, Raaj AA, Namasivayam K, Rajaram S. A survey on current attitude of practicing physicians upon usage of antimicrobial agents in southern part of India. MedGenMed 2004; 6(2): 1-11.
[PMID: 15266228]
[101]
Dua V, Kunin CM, White LV. The use of antimicrobial drugs in Nagpur, India. A window on medical care in a developing country. Soc Sci Med 1994; 38(5): 717-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(94)90462-6] [PMID: 8171350]
[102]
Kotwani A, Wattal C, Joshi PC, Holloway K. Irrational use of antibiotics and role of the pharmacist: an insight from a qualitative study in New Delhi, India. J Clin Pharm Ther 2012; 37(3): 308-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2710.2011.01293.x] [PMID: 21883328]
[103]
World Health Organization (WHO/ SEARO) The role of education in the rational use of medicines, SEARO Technical Publication Series No 45. New Delhi: Regional office for South East Asia 2006.
[104]
Sharma R, Verma U. Self-medication among urban population of Jammu city. Indian J Pharmacol 2005; 37: 37-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0253-7613.13856]
[105]
Dr Nirmal K. Ganguly Rationalizing antibiotic use to limit antibiotic resistance in India. National Institute of Immunology 2011; pp. 281-94.
[106]
Hicks LA, Chien YW, Taylor TH Jr, Haber M, Klugman KP. Active Bacterial Core Surveillance (ABCs) Team. Outpatient antibiotic prescribing and nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53: 631-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cir443] [PMID: 21890767]
[107]
Shehab N, Patel PR, Srinivasan A, Budnitz DS. Emergency department visits for antibiotic-associated adverse events. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47(6): 735-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/591126] [PMID: 18694344]
[108]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Antibiotic Resistance Threats in the United States. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2014.
[109]
Lessa FC, Mu Y, Bamberg WM, et al. Burden of Clostridium difficile infection in the United States. N Engl J Med 2015; 372(9): 825-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1408913] [PMID: 25714160]
[110]
Younis BB, Arshad R, Masood J, Khurshid S, Nazeer F, Tahira M. A Study of Unnecessary Use of Antibiotics at a Tertiary care hospital: Urgent need to implement antimicrobial stewardship programs. J Young Pharm 2015; 7(4): 127-35.
[111]
Phillips TG, Hickner J. Calling acute bronchitis a chest cold may improve patient satisfaction with appropriate antibiotic use. J Am Board Fam Pract 2005; 18(6): 459-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3122/jabfm.18.6.459] [PMID: 16322409]
[112]
Macfarlane J, Holmes W, Gard P, Thornhill D, Macfarlane R, Hubbard R. Reducing antibiotic use for acute bronchitis in primary care: blinded, randomised controlled trial of patient information leaflet. BMJ 2002; 324(7329): 91-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.324.7329.91] [PMID: 11786454]
[113]
Gandra S, Barter DM, Laxminarayan R. Economic burden of antibiotic resistance: how much do we really know? Clin Microbiol Infect 2014; 20(10): 973-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1469-0691.12798] [PMID: 25273968]
[114]
World Health Organization. Antimicrobial resistance 2016.
[115]
Hogerzeil HV. Bimo, Ross-Degnan D, et al. Field tests for rational drug use in twelve developing countries. Lancet 1993; 342(8884): 1408-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(93)92760-Q] [PMID: 7901689]
[116]
Susan M, Hariharan TS. A prospective study on the pattern of antibiotic use in a tertiary care hospital. Int J Basic Clin Pharmacol 2017; 6(9): 2237-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2319-2003.ijbcp20173752]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
61
1
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy