Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Medicinal Chemistry

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 0929-8673
ISSN (Online): 1875-533X

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe Translate in Chinese
Review Article

PCSK9 Inhibition could be Effective for Acute Myocardial Infarction

Author(s): Baris Gencer* and François Mach

Volume 29, Issue 6, 2022

Published on: 07 January, 2022

Page: [1016 - 1026] Pages: 11

DOI: 10.2174/0929867328666210804091003

Price: $65

Open Access Journals Promotions 2
Abstract

In this review, we explore the role of PCSK9 and the inhibition of PCSK9 in patients after acute myocardial infarction (MI). Despite the implementation of evidencebased therapies to improve outcomes, one-year mortality remains at 12-15%, and there is still a need to further reduce complications related to MI. Mechanistic and epidemiologic studies have suggested that the naturally occurring PCSK9 protein increases coronary plaque vulnerability through several pathways, including pro-inflammatory LDL-C oxidation and direct modification of plaque composition. PCSK9 inhibitors are a class of drugs with proven efficacy in patients with recent MI. The latest guidelines recommend the use of PCSK9 inhibitors in patients with recent MI early in the process of care to reduce LDL-C values and associated morbidity. The use of PCSK9 inhibition could be beneficial for mortality reduction after an acute MI and should be tested in an appropriately powered randomized controlled trial.

Keywords: Lipids, myocardial infarction, acute coronary syndromes, lipid-lowering, cardiovascular disease, PCSK9.

« Previous Next »
[1]
Ibanez, B.; James, S.; Agewall, S.; Antunes, M.J.; Bucciarelli-Ducci, C.; Bueno, H.; Caforio, A.L.P.; Crea, F.; Goudevenos, J.A.; Halvorsen, S.; Hindricks, G.; Kastrati, A.; Lenzen, M.J.; Prescott, E.; Roffi, M.; Valgimigli, M.; Varenhorst, C.; Vranckx, P.; Widimský, P. 2017 ESC Guidelines for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation: The Task Force for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur. Heart J., 2018, 39(2), 119-177.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehx393] [PMID: 28886621]
[2]
Ference, B.A.; Ginsberg, H.N.; Graham, I.; Ray, K.K.; Packard, C.J.; Bruckert, E.; Hegele, R.A.; Krauss, R.M.; Raal, F.J.; Schunkert, H.; Watts, G.F.; Borén, J.; Fazio, S.; Horton, J.D.; Masana, L.; Nicholls, S.J.; Nordestgaard, B.G.; van de Sluis, B.; Taskinen, M.R.; Tokgözoglu, L.; Landmesser, U.; Laufs, U.; Wiklund, O.; Stock, J.K.; Chapman, M.J.; Catapano, A.L. Low-density lipoproteins cause atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. 1. Evidence from genetic, epidemiologic, and clinical studies. A consensus statement from the European Atherosclerosis Society Consensus Panel. Eur. Heart J., 2017, 38(32), 2459-2472.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehx144] [PMID: 28444290]
[3]
Reindl, M.; Reinstadler, S.J.; Feistritzer, H.J.; Theurl, M.; Basic, D.; Eigler, C.; Holzknecht, M.; Mair, J.; Mayr, A.; Klug, G.; Metzler, B. Relation of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol with microvascular injury and clinical outcome in revascularized st-elevation myocardial infarction. J. Am. Heart Assoc., 2017, 6(10), e006957.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.117.006957] [PMID: 29018020]
[4]
Sabatine, M.S.; Wiviott, S.D.; Im, K.; Murphy, S.A.; Giugliano, R.P. Efficacy and safety of further lowering of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in patients starting with very low levels: a meta-analysis. JAMA Cardiol., 2018, 3(9), 823-828.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2018.2258] [PMID: 30073316]
[5]
Roffi, M.; Patrono, C.; Collet, J.P.; Mueller, C.; Valgimigli, M.; Andreotti, F.; Bax, J.J.; Borger, M.A.; Brotons, C.; Chew, D.P.; Gencer, B.; Hasenfuss, G.; Kjeldsen, K.; Lancellotti, P.; Landmesser, U.; Mehilli, J.; Mukherjee, D.; Storey, R.F.; Windecker, S. 2015 ESC Guidelines for the management of acute coronary syndromes in patients presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation: Task Force for the Management of Acute Coronary Syndromes in Patients Presenting without Persistent ST-Segment Elevation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur. Heart J., 2016, 37(3), 267-315.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehv320] [PMID: 26320110]
[6]
Stenestrand, U.; Wallentin, L. Early statin treatment following acute myocardial infarction and 1-year survival. JAMA, 2001, 285(4), 430-436.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.285.4.430] [PMID: 11242427]
[7]
Schwartz, G.G.; Olsson, A.G.; Ezekowitz, M.D.; Ganz, P.; Oliver, M.F.; Waters, D.; Zeiher, A.; Chaitman, B.R.; Leslie, S.; Stern, T. Effects of atorvastatin on early recurrent ischemic events in acute coronary syndromes: the MIRACL study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 2001, 285(13), 1711-1718.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.285.13.1711] [PMID: 11277825]
[8]
Navarese, E.P.; Kowalewski, M.; Andreotti, F.; van Wely, M.; Camaro, C.; Kolodziejczak, M.; Gorny, B.; Wirianta, J.; Kubica, J.; Kelm, M.; de Boer, M.J.; Suryapranata, H. Meta-analysis of time-related benefits of statin therapy in patients with acute coronary syndrome undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention. Am. J. Cardiol., 2014, 113(10), 1753-1764.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2014.02.034] [PMID: 24792742]
[9]
Mach, F.; Baigent, C.; Catapano, A.L.; Koskinas, K.C.; Casula, M.; Badimon, L.; Chapman, M.J.; De Backer, G.G.; Delgado, V.; Ference, B.A.; Graham, I.M.; Halliday, A.; Landmesser, U.; Mihaylova, B.; Pedersen, T.R.; Riccardi, G.; Richter, D.J.; Sabatine, M.S.; Taskinen, M.R.; Tokgozoglu, L.; Wiklund, O. 2019 ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: lipid modification to reduce cardiovascular risk. Eur. Heart J., 2020, 41(1), 111-188.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehz455] [PMID: 31504418]
[10]
Gencer, B.; Auer, R.; Nanchen, D.; Räber, L.; Klingenberg, R.; Carballo, D.; Blum, M.; Vogt, P.; Carballo, S.; Meyer, P.; Matter, C.M.; Windecker, S.; Lüscher, T.F.; Mach, F.; Rodondi, N. Expected impact of applying new 2013 AHA/ACC cholesterol guidelines criteria on the recommended lipid target achievement after acute coronary syndromes. Atherosclerosis, 2015, 239(1), 118-124.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.12.049] [PMID: 25585031]
[11]
Gencer, B.; Koskinas, K.C.; Räber, L.; Karagiannis, A.; Nanchen, D.; Auer, R.; Carballo, D.; Carballo, S.; Klingenberg, R.; Heg, D.; Matter, C.M.; Lüscher, T.F.; Rodondi, N.; Mach, F.; Windecker, S. Eligibility for PCSK9 inhibitors according to american college of cardiology (ACC) and european society of cardiology/european atherosclerosis society (ESC/EAS) guidelines after acute coronary syndromes. J. Am. Heart Assoc., 2017, 6(11), e006537.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.117.006537] [PMID: 29122809]
[12]
Koskinas, K.C.; Gencer, B.; Nanchen, D.; Branca, M.; Carballo, D.; Klingenberg, R. Eligibility for PCSK9 inhibitors based on the 2019 ESC/EAS and 2018 ACC/AHA guidelines. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol., 2020., 2047487320940102.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2047487320940102] [PMID: 33755142]
[13]
Landmesser, U.; Chapman, M.J.; Farnier, M.; Gencer, B.; Gielen, S.; Hovingh, G.K.; Lüscher, T.F.; Sinning, D.; Tokgözoglu, L.; Wiklund, O.; Zamorano, J.L.; Pinto, F.J.; Catapano, A.L. European society of cardiology/european atherosclerosis society task force consensus statement on proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 inhibitors: practical guidance for use in patients at very high cardiovascular risk. Eur. Heart J., 2017, 38(29), 2245-2255.
[PMID: 27789571]
[14]
Navarese, E.P.; Kolodziejczak, M.; Kereiakes, D.J.; Tantry, U.S.; O’Connor, C.; Gurbel, P.A. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 monoclonal antibodies for acute coronary syndrome: a narrative review. Ann. Intern. Med., 2016, 164(9), 600-607.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/M15-2994] [PMID: 26999484]
[15]
Gencer, B.; Montecucco, F.; Nanchen, D.; Carbone, F.; Klingenberg, R.; Vuilleumier, N.; Aghlmandi, S.; Heg, D.; Räber, L.; Auer, R.; Jüni, P.; Windecker, S.; Lüscher, T.F.; Matter, C.M.; Rodondi, N.; Mach, F. Prognostic value of PCSK9 levels in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Eur. Heart J., 2016, 37(6), 546-553.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehv637] [PMID: 26655339]
[16]
Gao, Y.; Qiu, Y.; Wu, J.; Diao, W.; Zhang, H.; Wang, S.; Du, Z.; Dong, J.; Zhang, M.; Jiang, L. Acute-phase plasma PCSK9 levels and recurrent cardiovascular events in a chinese acute myocardial infarction cohort. Cardiology, 2018, 141(2), 88-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000493785] [PMID: 30423567]
[17]
Bae, K.H.; Kim, S.W.; Choi, Y.K.; Seo, J.B.; Kim, N.; Kim, C.Y. Serum levels of PCSK9 are associated with coronary angiographic severity in patients with acute coronary syndrome. Diabetes Metab. J., 2018.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2017.0081]
[18]
Almontashiri, N.A.; Vilmundarson, R.O.; Ghasemzadeh, N.; Dandona, S.; Roberts, R.; Quyyumi, A.A.; Chen, H.H.; Stewart, A.F. Plasma PCSK9 levels are elevated with acute myocardial infarction in two independent retrospective angiographic studies. PLoS One, 2014, 9(9), e106294.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0106294] [PMID: 25180781]
[19]
Leander, K.; Mälarstig, A.; Van’t Hooft, F.M.; Hyde, C.; Hellénius, M.L.; Troutt, J.S.; Konrad, R.J.; Öhrvik, J.; Hamsten, A.; de Faire, U. Circulating proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) predicts future risk of cardiovascular events independently of established risk factors. Circulation, 2016, 133(13), 1230-1239.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.018531] [PMID: 26896437]
[20]
Cao, Y.X.; Jin, J.L.; Sun, D.; Liu, H.H.; Guo, Y.L.; Wu, N.Q.; Xu, R.X.; Zhu, C.G.; Dong, Q.; Sun, J.; Li, J.J. Circulating PCSK9 and cardiovascular events in FH patients with standard lipid-lowering therapy. J. Transl. Med., 2019, 17(1), 367.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12967-019-2123-9] [PMID: 31711505]
[21]
Stancu, C.; Sima, A. Statins: mechanism of action and effects. J. Cell. Mol. Med., 2001, 5(4), 378-387.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1582-4934.2001.tb00172.x] [PMID: 12067471]
[22]
Taylor, B.A.; Thompson, P.D. Statins and their effect on PCSK9-impact and clinical relevance. Curr. Atheroscler. Rep., 2016, 18(8), 46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11883-016-0604-3] [PMID: 27315084]
[23]
Navarese, E.P.; Kolodziejczak, M.; Schulze, V.; Gurbel, P.A.; Tantry, U.; Lin, Y.; Brockmeyer, M.; Kandzari, D.E.; Kubica, J.M.; D’Agostino, R.B., Sr; Kubica, J.; Volpe, M.; Agewall, S.; Kereiakes, D.J.; Kelm, M. Effects of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 antibodies in adults with hypercholesterolemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann. Intern. Med., 2015, 163(1), 40-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/M14-2957] [PMID: 25915661]
[24]
Sabatine, M.S.; Giugliano, R.P.; Keech, A.C.; Honarpour, N.; Wiviott, S.D.; Murphy, S.A.; Kuder, J.F.; Wang, H.; Liu, T.; Wasserman, S.M.; Sever, P.S.; Pedersen, T.R. Evolocumab and clinical outcomes in patients with cardiovascular disease. N. Engl. J. Med., 2017, 376(18), 1713-1722.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1615664] [PMID: 28304224]
[25]
Schwartz, G.G.; Steg, P.G.; Szarek, M.; Bhatt, D.L.; Bittner, V.A.; Diaz, R.; Edelberg, J.M.; Goodman, S.G.; Hanotin, C.; Harrington, R.A.; Jukema, J.W.; Lecorps, G.; Mahaffey, K.W.; Moryusef, A.; Pordy, R.; Quintero, K.; Roe, M.T.; Sasiela, W.J.; Tamby, J.F.; Tricoci, P.; White, H.D.; Zeiher, A.M. Alirocumab and cardiovascular outcomes after acute coronary syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med., 2018, 379(22), 2097-2107.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1801174] [PMID: 30403574]
[26]
Giugliano, R.P.; Keech, A.; Murphy, S.A.; Huber, K.; Tokgozoglu, S.L.; Lewis, B.S.; Ferreira, J.; Pineda, A.L.; Somaratne, R.; Sever, P.S.; Pedersen, T.R.; Sabatine, M.S. Clinical efficacy and safety of evolocumab in high-risk patients receiving a statin: secondary analysis of patients with Low LDL cholesterol levels and in those already receiving a maximal-potency statin in a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Cardiol., 2017, 2(12), 1385-1391.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2017.3944] [PMID: 29117276]
[27]
Giugliano, R.P.; Mach, F.; Zavitz, K.; Kurtz, C. Im, K.; Kanevsky, E.; Schneider, J.; Wang, H.; Keech, A.; Pedersen, T.R.; Sabatine, M.S.; Sever, P.S.; Robinson, J.G.; Honarpour, N.; Wasserman, S.M.; Ott, B.R. Cognitive function in a randomized trial of evolocumab. N. Engl. J. Med., 2017, 377(7), 633-643.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1701131] [PMID: 28813214]
[28]
Gencer, B.; Mach, F.; Guo, J. Im, K.; Ruzza, A.; Wang, H.; Kurtz, C.E.; Pedersen, T.R.; Keech, A.C.; Ott, B.R.; Sabatine, M.S.; Giugliano, R.P. Cognition after lowering LDL-cholesterol with evolocumab. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2020, 75(18), 2283-2293.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2020.03.039] [PMID: 32381158]
[29]
Gencer, B.; Mach, F.; Murphy, S.A.; De Ferrari, G.M.; Huber, K.; Lewis, B.S.; Ferreira, J.; Kurtz, C.E.; Wang, H.; Honarpour, N.; Keech, A.C.; Sever, P.S.; Pedersen, T.R.; Sabatine, M.S.; Giugliano, R.P. Efficacy of evolocumab on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with recent myocardial infarction: a prespecified secondary analysis from the fourier trial. JAMA Cardiol., 2020, 5(8), 952-957.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2020.0882] [PMID: 32432684]
[30]
Fonarow, G.C.; Wright, R.S.; Spencer, F.A.; Fredrick, P.D.; Dong, W.; Every, N.; French, W.J. Effect of statin use within the first 24 hours of admission for acute myocardial infarction on early morbidity and mortality. Am. J. Cardiol., 2005, 96(5), 611-616.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2005.04.029] [PMID: 16125480]
[31]
Miura, T.; Izawa, A.; Motoki, H.; Miyashita, Y.; Kashima, Y.; Ebisawa, S.; Tomita, T.; Koyama, J.; Ikeda, U. Clinical impact of rapid reduction of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol level on long-term outcome of acute myocardial infarction in the statin era: subanalysis of the ALPS-AMI study. PLoS One, 2015, 10(6), e0127835.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127835] [PMID: 26083546]
[32]
Guo, J.; Zhang, W.Z.; Zhao, Q.; Wo, J.S.; Cai, S.L. Study on the effect of different doses of rosuvastatin on ventricular remodeling in patients with acute coronary syndrome after emergency percutaneous coronary intervention. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci., 2017, 21(19), 4457-4463.
[PMID: 29077146]
[33]
Berwanger, O.; Santucci, E.V.; de Barros, E. Silva, P.G.M.; Jesuíno, I.A.; Damiani, L.P.; Barbosa, L.M.; Santos, R.H.N.; Laranjeira, L.N.; Egydio, F.M.; Borges de Oliveira, J.A.; Dall Orto, F.T.C.; Beraldo de Andrade, P.; Bienert, I.R.C.; Bosso, C.E.; Mangione, J.A.; Polanczyk, C.A.; Sousa, A.G.M.R.; Kalil, R.A.K.; Santos, L.M.; Sposito, A.C.; Rech, R.L.; Sousa, A.C.S.; Baldissera, F.; Nascimento, B.R.; Giraldez, R.R.C.V.; Cavalcanti, A.B.; Pereira, S.B.; Mattos, L.A.; Armaganijan, L.V.; Guimarães, H.P.; Sousa, J.E.M.R.; Alexander, J.H.; Granger, C.B.; Lopes, R.D. Effect of loading dose of atorvastatin prior to planned percutaneous coronary intervention on major adverse cardiovascular events in acute coronary syndrome: the secuRE-PCI randomized clinical trial. JAMA, 2018, 319(13), 1331-1340.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.2444] [PMID: 29525821]
[34]
Szummer, K.; Wallentin, L.; Lindhagen, L.; Alfredsson, J.; Erlinge, D.; Held, C.; James, S.; Kellerth, T.; Lindahl, B.; Ravn-Fischer, A.; Rydberg, E.; Yndigegn, T.; Jernberg, T. Improved outcomes in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction during the last 20 years are related to implementation of evidence-based treatments: experiences from the SWEDEHEART registry 1995-2014. Eur. Heart J., 2017, 38(41), 3056-3065.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehx515] [PMID: 29020314]
[35]
Ferri, N.; Tibolla, G.; Pirillo, A.; Cipollone, F.; Mezzetti, A.; Pacia, S.; Corsini, A.; Catapano, A.L. Proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin type 9 (PCSK9) secreted by cultured smooth muscle cells reduces macrophages LDLR levels. Atherosclerosis, 2012, 220(2), 381-386.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2011.11.026] [PMID: 22176652]
[36]
Giunzioni, I.; Tavori, H.; Covarrubias, R.; Major, A.S.; Ding, L.; Zhang, Y.; DeVay, R.M.; Hong, L.; Fan, D.; Predazzi, I.M.; Rashid, S.; Linton, M.F.; Fazio, S. Local effects of human PCSK9 on the atherosclerotic lesion. J. Pathol., 2016, 238(1), 52-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/path.4630] [PMID: 26333678]
[37]
Ding, Z.; Liu, S.; Wang, X.; Deng, X.; Fan, Y.; Shahanawaz, J.; Shmookler Reis, R.J.; Varughese, K.I.; Sawamura, T.; Mehta, J.L. Cross-talk between LOX-1 and PCSK9 in vascular tissues. Cardiovasc. Res., 2015, 107(4), 556-567.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvv178] [PMID: 26092101]
[38]
Ding, Z.; Liu, S.; Wang, X.; Deng, X.; Fan, Y.; Sun, C.; Wang, Y.; Mehta, J.L. Hemodynamic shear stress via ROS modulates PCSK9 expression in human vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells and along the mouse aorta. Antioxid. Redox Signal., 2015, 22(9), 760-771.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/ars.2014.6054] [PMID: 25490141]
[39]
Ding, Z.; Liu, S.; Wang, X.; Theus, S.; Deng, X.; Fan, Y.; Zhou, S.; Mehta, J.L. PCSK9 regulates expression of scavenger receptors and ox-LDL uptake in macrophages. Cardiovasc. Res., 2018, 114(8), 1145-1153.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvy079] [PMID: 29617722]
[40]
Crea, F.; Libby, P. Acute coronary syndromes: the way forward from mechanisms to precision treatment. Circulation, 2017, 136(12), 1155-1166.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.029870] [PMID: 28923905]
[41]
Seropian, I.M.; Toldo, S.; Van Tassell, B.W.; Abbate, A. Anti-inflammatory strategies for ventricular remodeling following ST-segment elevation acute myocardial infarction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2014, 63(16), 1593-1603.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2014.01.014] [PMID: 24530674]
[42]
Reindl, M.; Reinstadler, S.J.; Feistritzer, H.J.; Klug, G.; Tiller, C.; Mair, J.; Mayr, A.; Jaschke, W.; Metzler, B. Relation of inflammatory markers with myocardial and microvascular injury in patients with reperfused ST-elevation myocardial infarction. Eur. Heart J. Acute Cardiovasc. Care, 2017, 6(7), 640-649.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2048872616661691] [PMID: 27440935]
[43]
Ding, Z.; Wang, X.; Liu, S.; Shahanawaz, J.; Theus, S.; Fan, Y.; Deng, X.; Zhou, S.; Mehta, J.L. PCSK9 expression in the ischaemic heart and its relationship to infarct size, cardiac function, and development of autophagy. Cardiovasc. Res., 2018, 114(13), 1738-1751.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvy128] [PMID: 29800228]
[44]
Zhang, Y.; Liu, J.; Li, S.; Xu, R.X.; Sun, J.; Tang, Y.; Li, J.J. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 expression is transiently up-regulated in the acute period of myocardial infarction in rat. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord., 2014, 14, 192.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2261-14-192] [PMID: 25519174]
[45]
Navarese, E.P.; Kolodziejczak, M.; Winter, M.P.; Alimohammadi, A.; Lang, I.M.; Buffon, A.; Lip, G.Y.; Siller-Matula, J.M. Association of PCSK9 with platelet reactivity in patients with acute coronary syndrome treated with prasugrel or ticagrelor: The PCSK9-REACT study. Int. J. Cardiol., 2017, 227, 644-649.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2016.10.084] [PMID: 27810295]
[46]
Gurbel, P.A.; Navarese, E.P.; Tantry, U.S. Exploration of PCSK9 as a cardiovascular risk factor: is there a link to the platelet? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2017, 70(12), 1463-1466.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2017.07.779] [PMID: 28911509]
[47]
Mayr, A.; Klug, G.; Schocke, M.; Trieb, T.; Mair, J.; Pedarnig, K.; Pachinger, O.; Jaschke, W.; Metzler, B. Late microvascular obstruction after acute myocardial infarction: relation with cardiac and inflammatory markers. Int. J. Cardiol., 2012, 157(3), 391-396.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2010.12.090] [PMID: 21239074]
[48]
Larose, E.; Rodés-Cabau, J.; Pibarot, P.; Rinfret, S.; Proulx, G.; Nguyen, C.M.; Déry, J.P.; Gleeton, O.; Roy, L.; Noël, B.; Barbeau, G.; Rouleau, J.; Boudreault, J.R.; Amyot, M.; De Larochellière, R.; Bertrand, O.F. Predicting late myocardial recovery and outcomes in the early hours of ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction traditional measures compared with microvascular obstruction, salvaged myocardium, and necrosis characteristics by cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2010, 55(22), 2459-2469.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2010.02.033] [PMID: 20510213]
[49]
Bayes-Genis, A.; Núñez, J.; Zannad, F.; Ferreira, J.P.; Anker, S.D.; Cleland, J.G.; Dickstein, K.; Filippatos, G.; Lang, C.C.; Ng, L.L.; Ponikowski, P.; Samani, N.J.; van Veldhuisen, D.J.; Zwinderman, A.H.; Metra, M.; Lupón, J.; Voors, A.A. The PCSK9-LDL receptor axis and outcomes in heart failure: BIOSTAT-CHF subanalysis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2017, 70(17), 2128-2136.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2017.08.057] [PMID: 29050560]
[50]
Karagiannis, A.D.; Liu, M.; Toth, P.P.; Zhao, S.; Agrawal, D.K.; Libby, P.; Chatzizisis, Y.S. Pleiotropic anti-atherosclerotic effects of PCSK9 inhibitorsfrom molecular biology to clinical translation. Curr. Atheroscler. Rep., 2018, 20(4), 20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11883-018-0718-x] [PMID: 29525934]
[51]
Tang, Z.; Jiang, L.; Peng, J.; Ren, Z.; Wei, D.; Wu, C.; Pan, L.; Jiang, Z.; Liu, L. PCSK9 siRNA suppresses the inflammatory response induced by oxLDL through inhibition of NF-κB activation in THP-1-derived macrophages. Int. J. Mol. Med., 2012, 30(4), 931-938.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2012.1072] [PMID: 22825241]
[52]
Leenders, G.J.; Smeets, M.B.; van den Boomen, M.; Berben, M.; Nabben, M.; van Strijp, D.; Strijkers, G.J.; Prompers, J.J.; Arslan, F.; Nicolay, K.; Vandoorne, K. Statins promote cardiac infarct healing by modulating endothelial barrier function revealed by contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 2018, 38(1), 186-194.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.117.310339] [PMID: 29146749]
[53]
Li, X.D.; Yang, Y.J.; Geng, Y.J.; Cheng, Y.T.; Zhang, H.T.; Zhao, J.L.; Yuan, J.Q.; Gao, R.L. The cardioprotection of simvastatin in reperfused swine hearts relates to the inhibition of myocardial edema by modulating aquaporins via the PKA pathway. Int. J. Cardiol., 2013, 167(6), 2657-2666.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2012.06.121] [PMID: 22819122]
[54]
Weinberg, E.O.; Scherrer-Crosbie, M.; Picard, M.H.; Nasseri, B.A.; MacGillivray, C.; Gannon, J.; Lian, Q.; Bloch, K.D.; Lee, R.T. Rosuvastatin reduces experimental left ventricular infarct size after ischemia-reperfusion injury but not total coronary occlusion. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol., 2005, 288(4), H1802-H1809.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00962.2004] [PMID: 15563531]
[55]
Tang, X.L.; Sanganalmath, S.K.; Sato, H.; Bi, Q.; Hunt, G.; Vincent, R.J.; Peng, Y.; Shirk, G.; Dawn, B.; Bolli, R. Atorvastatin therapy during the peri-infarct period attenuates left ventricular dysfunction and remodeling after myocardial infarction. PLoS One, 2011, 6(9), e25320.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0025320] [PMID: 21980426] [PMID: 30586774]
[56]
Grundy, S.M.; Stone, N.J.; Bailey, A.L.; Beam, C.; Birtcher, K.K.; Blumenthal, R.S.; Braun, L.T.; de Ferranti, S.; Faiella-Tommasino, J.; Forman, D.E.; Goldberg, R.; Heidenreich, P.A.; Hlatky, M.A.; Jones, D.W.; Lloyd-Jones, D.; Lopez-Pajares, N.; Ndumele, C.E.; Orringer, C.E.; Peralta, C.A.; Saseen, J.J.; Smith, S.C., Jr; Sperling, L.; Virani, S.S.; Yeboah, J. 2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA guideline on the management of blood cholesterol: a report of the american college of cardiology/american heart association task force on clinical practice guidelines. Circulation, 2019, 139(25), e1082-e1143.
[57]
Nicholls, S.J.; Puri, R.; Anderson, T.; Ballantyne, C.M.; Cho, L.; Kastelein, J.J.; Koenig, W.; Somaratne, R.; Kassahun, H.; Yang, J.; Wasserman, S.M.; Scott, R.; Ungi, I.; Podolec, J.; Ophuis, A.O.; Cornel, J.H.; Borgman, M.; Brennan, D.M.; Nissen, S.E. Effect of evolocumab on progression of coronary disease in statin-treated patients: the GLAGOV randomized clinical trial. JAMA, 2016, 316(22), 2373-2384.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.16951] [PMID: 27846344]
[58]
Koskinas, K.C.; Windecker, S.; Pedrazzini, G.; Mueller, C.; Cook, S.; Matter, C.M.; Muller, O.; Häner, J.; Gencer, B.; Crljenica, C.; Amini, P.; Deckarm, O.; Iglesias, J.F.; Räber, L.; Heg, D.; Mach, F. Evolocumab for early reduction of LDL cholesterol levels in patients with acute coronary syndromes (EVOPACS). J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2019, 74(20), 2452-2462.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2019.08.010] [PMID: 31479722]
[59]
Gencer, B.; Giugliano, R.P. Management of LDL-cholesterol after an acute coronary syndrome: Key comparisons of the American and European clinical guidelines to the attention of the healthcare providers. Clin. Cardiol., 2020, 43(7), 684-690.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/clc.23410] [PMID: 32596859]
[60]
Gencer, B.; Mach, F. Lipid management in ACS: Should we go lower faster? Atherosclerosis, 2018, 275, 368-375.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2018.06.871] [PMID: 30015301]
[61]
Cannon, C.P.; Blazing, M.A.; Giugliano, R.P.; McCagg, A.; White, J.A.; Theroux, P.; Darius, H.; Lewis, B.S.; Ophuis, T.O.; Jukema, J.W.; De Ferrari, G.M.; Ruzyllo, W.; De Lucca, P. Im, K.; Bohula, E.A.; Reist, C.; Wiviott, S.D.; Tershakovec, A.M.; Musliner, T.A.; Braunwald, E.; Califf, R.M. Ezetimibe added to statin therapy after acute coronary syndromes. N. Engl. J. Med., 2015, 372(25), 2387-2397.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1410489] [PMID: 26039521]
[62]
Baigent, C.; Blackwell, L.; Emberson, J.; Holland, L.E.; Reith, C.; Bhala, N.; Peto, R.; Barnes, E.H.; Keech, A.; Simes, J.; Collins, R. Efficacy and safety of more intensive lowering of LDL cholesterol: a meta-analysis of data from 170,000 participants in 26 randomised trials. Lancet, 2010, 376(9753), 1670-1681.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61350-5] [PMID: 21067804]
[63]
Kaufman, T.M.; Warden, B.A.; Minnier, J.; Miles, J.R.; Duell, P.B.; Purnell, J.Q.; Wojcik, C.; Fazio, S.; Shapiro, M.D. Application of PCSK9 inhibitors in practice. Circ. Res., 2019, 124(1), 32-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.118.314191] [PMID: 30605414]
[64]
Koskinas, K.C.; Windecker, S.; Buhayer, A.; Gencer, B.; Pedrazzini, G.; Mueller, C.; Cook, S.; Muller, O.; Matter, C.M.; Räber, L.; Heg, D.; Mach, F. Design of the randomized, placebo-controlled evolocumab for early reduction of LDL-cholesterol levels in patients with acute coronary syndromes (EVOPACS) trial. Clin. Cardiol., 2018, 41(12), 1513-1520.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/clc.23112] [PMID: 30421481]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
59
1
Wayfinder Image
Open Access Journals Promotions
World Antimicrobial Awareness Week
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy