Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Diabetes Reviews

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1573-3998
ISSN (Online): 1875-6417

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

A Review on Diabetic Retinopathy

Author(s): Vijender Kour, Jayshree Swain, Jaspreet Singh*, Hershdeep Singh and Harvinder Kour

Volume 20, Issue 6, 2024

Published on: 20 October, 2023

Article ID: e201023222418 Pages: 15

DOI: 10.2174/0115733998253672231011161400

Price: $65

Abstract

Diabetic retinopathy is a well-recognised microvascular complication of diabetes and is among the leading cause of blindness all over the world. Over the last decade, there have been advances in the diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular edema. At the same time, newer therapies for the management of diabetic retinopathy have evolved. As a result of these advances, a decline in severe vision loss due to diabetes has been witnessed in some developing countries. However, there is a steady increase in the number of people affected with diabetes, and is expected to rise further in the coming years. Therefore, it is prudent to identify diabetic retinopathy, and timely intervention is needed to decrease the burden of severe vision loss. An effort has been made to review all the existing knowledge regarding diabetic retinopathy in this article and summarize the present treatment options for diabetic retinopathy.

Keywords: Diabetic retinopathy (DR), diabetic macular edema (DME), proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR), anti-VEGF therapy, laser photocoagulation.

[1]
Shaw JE, Sicree RA, Zimmet PZ. Global estimates of the prevalence of diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2010; 87(1): 4-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2009.10.007] [PMID: 19896746]
[2]
Antonetti DA, Klein R, Gardner TW. Diabetic retinopathy. N Engl J Med 2012; 366(13): 1227-39.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1005073] [PMID: 22455417]
[3]
Cheung N, Mitchell P, Wong TY. Diabetic retinopathy. Lancet 2010; 376(9735): 124-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)62124-3] [PMID: 20580421]
[4]
Klein R, Lee KE, Gangnon RE, Klein BEK. The 25-year incidence of visual impairment in type 1 diabetes mellitus the wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology 2010; 117(1): 63-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.06.051] [PMID: 19880184]
[5]
Moss S, Klein R, Klein BE. The 14-year incidence of visual loss in a diabetic population. Ophthalmology 1998; 105(6): 998-1003.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(98)96025-0] [PMID: 9627648]
[6]
Wong TY, Klein R, Islam FMA, et al. Diabetic retinopathy in a multi-ethnic cohort in the United States. Am J Ophthalmol 2006; 141(3): 446-455.e1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajo.2005.08.063] [PMID: 16490489]
[7]
Zhang X, Saaddine JB, Chou CF, et al. Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in the United States, 2005-2008. JAMA 2010; 304(6): 649-56.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2010.1111] [PMID: 20699456]
[8]
Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. The Wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy. II. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is less than 30 years. Arch Ophthalmol 1984; 102(4): 520-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archopht.1984.01040030398010] [PMID: 6367724]
[9]
Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. The Wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy. III. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is 30 or more years. Arch Ophthalmol 1984; 102(4): 527-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archopht.1984.01040030405011] [PMID: 6367725]
[10]
Emdin CA, Rahimi K, Neal B, Callender T, Perkovic V, Patel A. Blood pressure lowering in type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2015; 313(6): 603-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.18574] [PMID: 25668264]
[11]
Gæde P, Vedel P, Larsen N, Jensen GVH, Parving HH, Pedersen O. Multifactorial intervention and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2003; 348(5): 383-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa021778] [PMID: 12556541]
[12]
Gæde P, Lund-Andersen H, Parving HH, Pedersen O. Effect of a multifactorial intervention on mortality in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008; 358(6): 580-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0706245] [PMID: 18256393]
[13]
Mohamed Q, Gillies MC, Wong TY. Management of diabetic retinopathy: A systematic review. JAMA 2007; 298(8): 902-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.298.8.902] [PMID: 17712074]
[14]
Ogurtsova K, da Rocha Fernandes JD, Huang Y, et al. IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global estimates for the prevalence of diabetes for 2015 and 2040. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2017; 128: 40-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.03.024] [PMID: 28437734]
[15]
Yau JWY, Rogers SL, Kawasaki R, et al. Global prevalence and major risk factors of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care 2012; 35(3): 556-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc11-1909] [PMID: 22301125]
[16]
Klein R, Klein BEK, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. The Wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy. IV. Diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 1984; 91(12): 1464-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(84)34102-1] [PMID: 6521986]
[17]
Klein R, Klein BEK, Moss SE, Cruickshanks KJ. The Wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy: XVII. Ophthalmology 1998; 105(10): 1801-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(98)91020-X] [PMID: 9787347]
[18]
Klein R, Klein BEK, Moss SE, Cruickshanks KJ. The wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy. XV. The long-term incidence of macular edema. Ophthalmology 1995; 102(1): 7-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(95)31052-4] [PMID: 7831044]
[19]
Leasher JL, Bourne RRA, Flaxman SR, et al. Global estimates on the number of people blind or visually impaired by diabetic retinopathy: A meta-analysis from 1990 to 2010. Diabetes Care 2016; 39(9): 1643-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc15-2171] [PMID: 27555623]
[20]
Bastawrous A, Mathenge W, Wing K, et al. The incidence of diabetes mellitus and diabetic retinopathy in a population-based cohort study of people age 50 years and over in Nakuru, Kenya. BMC Endocr Disord 2017; 17(1): 19.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12902-017-0170-x] [PMID: 28335755]
[21]
Chen MS, Kao CS, Fu CC, Chen CJ, Tai TY. Incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy among non-insulin-dependent diabetic subjects: a 4-year follow-up. Int J Epidemiol 1995; 24(4): 787-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/24.4.787] [PMID: 8550277]
[22]
Henricsson M, Nyström L, Blohmé G, et al. The incidence of retinopathy 10 years after diagnosis in young adult people with diabetes: Results from the nationwide population-based Diabetes Incidence Study in Sweden (DISS). Diabetes Care 2003; 26(2): 349-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.26.2.349] [PMID: 12547861]
[23]
Jin P, Peng J, Zou H, et al. The 5-year onset and regression of diabetic retinopathy in Chinese type 2 diabetes patients. PLoS One 2014; 9(11): e113359.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0113359] [PMID: 25402474]
[24]
Leske MC, Wu SY, Hennis A, Nemesure B, Hyman L, Schachat A. Incidence of diabetic retinopathy in the barbados eye studies. Ophthalmology 2003; 110(5): 941-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(03)00086-1] [PMID: 12750094]
[25]
Leske MC, Wu SY, Hennis A, et al. Nine-year incidence of diabetic retinopathy in the barbados eye studies. Arch Ophthalmol 2006; 124(2): 250-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archopht.124.2.250] [PMID: 16476895]
[26]
Mitchell P. Development and progression of diabetic eye disease in newcastle (1977–1984): Rates and risk FAC. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol 1985; 13(1): 39-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9071.1985.tb00397.x] [PMID: 4015877]
[27]
Raman R, Ganesan S, Pal SS, Gella L, Kulothungan V, Sharma T. Incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy in urban India: Sankara nethralaya-diabetic retinopathy epidemiology and molecular genetics study (SN-DREAMS II), Report 1. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 2017; 24: 294-302.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(18)30128-1]
[28]
Salinero-Fort MÁ, San Andrés-Rebollo FJ, de Burgos-Lunar C, Arrieta-Blanco FJ, Gómez-Campelo P, Group M. Four-year incidence of diabetic retinopathy in a Spanish cohort: The MADIABETES study. PLoS One 2013; 8(10): e76417.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076417] [PMID: 24146865]
[29]
Tam VHK, Lam EPK, Chu BCY, Tse KK, Fung LM. Incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy in Hong Kong Chinese with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes Complications 2009; 23(3): 185-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2008.03.001] [PMID: 18479945]
[30]
Tudor SM, Hamman RF, Baron A, Johnson DW, Shetterly SM. Incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy in Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites with type 2 diabetes. San luis valley diabetes study, colorado. Diabetes Care 1998; 21(1): 53-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.21.1.53] [PMID: 9538971]
[31]
Varma R, Choudhury F, Klein R, et al. Four-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy and macular edema: The los angeles latino eye study. Am J Ophthalmol 2010; 149: 752-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajo.2009.11.014]
[32]
Xu J, Xu L, Wang YX, You QS, Jonas JB, Wei WB. Ten-year cumulative incidence of diabetic retinopathy. The Beijing eye study 2001/2011. PLoS One 2014; 9(10): e111320.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0111320] [PMID: 25347072]
[33]
Ding J, Wong TY. Current epidemiology of diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular edema. Curr Diab Rep 2012; 12(4): 346-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11892-012-0283-6] [PMID: 22585044]
[34]
Keenan HA, Costacou T, Sun JK, et al. Clinical factors associated with resistance to microvascular complications in diabetic patients of extreme disease duration: The 50-year medalist study. Diabetes Care 2007; 30(8): 1995-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc06-2222] [PMID: 17507696]
[35]
Zhang L, Krzentowski G, Albert A, Lefebvre PJ. Risk of developing retinopathy in diabetes control and complications trial type 1 diabetic patients with good or poor metabolic control. Diabetes Care 2001; 24(7): 1275-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.24.7.1275] [PMID: 11423515]
[36]
Harris MI, Hadden WC, Knowler WC, Bennett PH. Prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance and plasma glucose levels in U.S. population aged 20-74 yr. Diabetes 1987; 36(4): 523-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diab.36.4.523] [PMID: 3817306]
[37]
Donaghue KC, Fairchild JM, Craig ME, et al. Do all prepubertal years of diabetes duration contribute equally to diabetes complications? Diabetes Care 2003; 26(4): 1224-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.26.4.1224] [PMID: 12663601]
[38]
Olsen BS, Sjølie AK, Hougaard P, et al. The significance of the prepubertal diabetes duration for the development of retinopathy and nephropathy in patients with type 1 diabetes. J Diabetes Complications 2004; 18(3): 160-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1056-8727(03)00073-4] [PMID: 15145327]
[39]
Lim LS, Wong TY. Lipids and diabetic retinopathy. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2012; 12(1): 93-105.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/14712598.2012.641531] [PMID: 22122357]
[40]
Benarous R, Sasongko MB, Qureshi S, et al. Differential association of serum lipids with diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular edema. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52(10): 7464-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/iovs.11-7598] [PMID: 21862642]
[41]
Lyons TJ, Jenkins AJ, Zheng D, et al. Diabetic retinopathy and serum lipoprotein subclasses in the DCCT/EDIC cohort. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2004; 45(3): 910-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/iovs.02-0648] [PMID: 14985310]
[42]
Sasongko MB, Wong TY, Nguyen TT, et al. Serum apolipoprotein AI and B are stronger biomarkers of diabetic retinopathy than traditional lipids. Diabetes Care 2011; 34(2): 474-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc10-0793] [PMID: 21270203]
[43]
Sasongko MB, Wong TY, Nguyen TT, Shaw JE, Jenkins AJ, Wang JJ. Novel versus traditional risk markers for diabetic retinopathy. Diabetologia 2012; 55(3): 666-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-011-2424-x] [PMID: 22198262]
[44]
Wong CW, Wong TY, Cheng CY, Sabanayagam C. Kidney and eye diseases: Common risk factors, etiological mechanisms, and pathways. Kidney Int 2014; 85(6): 1290-302.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ki.2013.491] [PMID: 24336029]
[45]
Cheung N, Wong TY. Obesity and eye diseases. Surv Ophthalmol 2007; 52(2): 180-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.survophthal.2006.12.003] [PMID: 17355856]
[46]
Conway BN, Miller RG, Klein R, Orchard TJ. Prediction of proliferative diabetic retinopathy with hemoglobin level. Arch Ophthalmol 2009; 127(11): 1494-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archophthalmol.2009.274] [PMID: 19901215]
[47]
Nguyen TT, Alibrahim E, Islam FMA, et al. Inflammatory, hemostatic, and other novel biomarkers for diabetic retinopathy: The multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Diabetes Care 2009; 32(9): 1704-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc09-0102] [PMID: 19549733]
[48]
Hong T, Mitchell P, de Loryn T, Rochtchina E, Cugati S, Wang JJ. Development and progression of diabetic retinopathy 12 months after phacoemulsification cataract surgery. Ophthalmology 2009; 116(8): 1510-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.03.003] [PMID: 19501407]
[49]
Squirrell D, Bhola R, Bush J, Winder S, Talbot JF. A prospective, case controlled study of the natural history of diabetic retinopathy and maculopathy after uncomplicated phacoemulsification cataract surgery in patients with type 2 diabetes. Br J Ophthalmol 2002; 86(5): 565-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjo.86.5.565] [PMID: 11973256]
[50]
Lim LS, Lamoureux E, Saw SM, Tay WT, Mitchell P, Wong TY. Are myopic eyes less likely to have diabetic retinopathy? Ophthalmology 2010; 117(3): 524-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.07.044] [PMID: 20031224]
[51]
Man REK, Sasongko MB, Sanmugasundram S, et al. Longer axial length is protective of diabetic retinopathy and macular edema. Ophthalmology 2012; 119(9): 1754-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.03.021] [PMID: 22627119]
[52]
Arar NH, Freedman BI, Adler SG, et al. Heritability of the severity of diabetic retinopathy: The FIND-Eye study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49(9): 3839-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/iovs.07-1633] [PMID: 18765632]
[53]
Hietala K, Forsblom C, Summanen P, Groop PH. Heritability of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes 2008; 57(8): 2176-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db07-1495] [PMID: 18443200]
[54]
Huang YC, Lin JM, Lin HJ, et al. Genome-wide association study of diabetic retinopathy in a Taiwanese population. Ophthalmology 2011; 118(4): 642-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2010.07.020] [PMID: 21310492]
[55]
Sobrin L, Green T, Sim X, et al. Candidate gene association study for diabetic retinopathy in persons with type 2 diabetes: The Candidate gene Association Resource (CARe). Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52(10): 7593-602.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/iovs.11-7510] [PMID: 21873659]
[56]
Kowluru RA, Kowluru A, Mishra M, Kumar B. Oxidative stress and epigenetic modifications in the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy. Prog Retin Eye Res 2015; 48: 40-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.05.001] [PMID: 25975734]
[57]
Perrone L, Matrone C, Singh LP. Epigenetic modifications and potential new treatment targets in diabetic retinopathy. J Ophthalmol 2014; 2014: 789120.
[PMID: 25165577]
[58]
Chalmers J, Cooper ME. UKPDS and the legacy effect. N Engl J Med 2008; 359(15): 1618-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMe0807625] [PMID: 18843126]
[59]
Nathan DM. The diabetes control and complications trial/epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications study at 30 years: Overview. Diabetes Care 2014; 37(1): 9-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc13-2112] [PMID: 24356592]
[60]
Lachin JM, White NH, Hainsworth DP, Sun W, Cleary PA, Nathan DM. Effect of intensive diabetes therapy on the progression of diabetic retinopathy in patients with type 1 diabetes: 18 years of follow-up in the DCCT/EDIC. Diabetes 2015; 64(2): 631-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db14-0930] [PMID: 25204977]
[61]
Frank RN. Diabetic retinopathy. N Engl J Med 2004; 350(1): 48-58.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra021678] [PMID: 14702427]
[62]
Wilkinson CP, Ferris FL III, Klein RE, et al. Proposed international clinical diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular edema disease severity scales. Ophthalmology 2003; 110(9): 1677-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(03)00475-5] [PMID: 13129861]
[63]
Brownlee M. Biochemistry and molecular cell biology of diabetic complications. Nature 2001; 414(6865): 813-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/414813a] [PMID: 11742414]
[64]
Simó R, Hernández C. Neurodegeneration in the diabetic eye: New insights and therapeutic perspectives. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2014; 25(1): 23-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2013.09.005] [PMID: 24183659]
[65]
Tang J, Kern TS. Inflammation in diabetic retinopathy. Prog Retin Eye Res 2011; 30(5): 343-58.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2011.05.002] [PMID: 21635964]
[66]
Wilkinson-Berka JL, Agrotis A, Deliyanti D. The retinal renin–angiotensin system: Roles of angiotensin II and aldosterone. Peptides 2012; 36(1): 142-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2012.04.008] [PMID: 22537944]
[67]
Li W, Xing Q, Liu Z, et al. The signaling pathways of traditional chinese medicine in treating diabetic retinopathy. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14: 1165649.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2023.1165649] [PMID: 37405050]
[68]
Riva CE, Logean E, Falsini B. Visually evoked hemodynamical response and assessment of neurovascular coupling in the optic nerve and retina. Prog Retin Eye Res 2005; 24(2): 183-215.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2004.07.002]
[69]
Kusari J, Zhou SX, Padillo E, Clarke KG, Gil DW. Inhibition of vitreoretinal VEGF elevation and blood-retinal barrier breakdown in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats by brimonidine. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010; 51(2): 1044-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/iovs.08-3293] [PMID: 19710406]
[70]
Zhang SX, Wang JJ, Gao G, Parke K, Ma J. Pigment epithelium-derived factor downregulates vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression and inhibits VEGF-VEGF receptor 2 binding in diabetic retinopathy. J Mol Endocrinol 2006; 37(1): 1-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/jme.1.02008] [PMID: 16901919]
[71]
Cervia D, Catalani E, Dal Monte M, Casini G. Vascular endothelial growth factor in the ischemic retina and its regulation by somatostatin. J Neurochem 2012; 120(5): 818-29.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07622.x] [PMID: 22168912]
[72]
Silva KC, Pinto CC, Biswas SK, Lopes de Faria JB, Lopes de Faria JM. Hypertension increases retinal inflammation in experimental diabetes: A possible mechanism for aggravation of diabetic retinopathy by hypertension. Curr Eye Res 2007; 32(6): 533-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02713680701435391] [PMID: 17612969]
[73]
Xu H, Chen M, Forrester JV. Para-inflammation in the aging retina. Prog Retin Eye Res 2009; 28(5): 348-68.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2009.06.001] [PMID: 19560552]
[74]
Joussen AM, Murata T, Tsujikawa A, Kirchhof B, Bursell SE, Adamis AP. Leukocyte-mediated endothelial cell injury and death in the diabetic retina. Am J Pathol 2001; 158(1): 147-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9440(10)63952-1] [PMID: 11141487]
[75]
McLeod DS, Lefer DJ, Merges C, Lutty GA. Enhanced expression of intracellular adhesion molecule-1 and P-selectin in the diabetic human retina and choroid. Am J Pathol 1995; 147(3): 642-53.
[PMID: 7545873]
[76]
Takagi H, Koyama S, Seike H, et al. Potential role of the angiopoietin/tie2 system in ischemia-induced retinal neovascularization. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2003; 44(1): 393-402.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/iovs.02-0276] [PMID: 12506101]
[77]
Simó R, Carrasco E, García-Ramírez M, Hernández C. Angiogenic and antiangiogenic factors in proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Curr Diabetes Rev 2006; 2(1): 71-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/157339906775473671] [PMID: 18220619]
[78]
Grosso A, Cheung N, Veglio F, Wong TY. Similarities and differences in early retinal phenotypes in hypertension and diabetes. J Hypertens 2011; 29(9): 1667-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e3283496655] [PMID: 21841544]
[79]
Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Wong TY. The relationship of retinopathy in persons without diabetes to the 15-year incidence of diabetes and hypertension: Beaver Dam Eye Study. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 2006; 104: 98-107.
[PMID: 17471330]
[80]
Ojaimi E, Nguyen TT, Klein R, et al. Retinopathy signs in people without diabetes: The multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Ophthalmology 2011; 118(4): 656-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2010.08.007] [PMID: 21055817]
[81]
Md FB, Pognuz R, Md AP, Md AP, Md FM, Md MA. Diabetic macular edema: Classification, medical and laser therapy. Semin Ophthalmol 2003; 18(4): 251-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08820530390895262] [PMID: 15513012]
[82]
Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Treatment techniques and clinical guidelines for photocoagulation of diabetic macular edema: Early treatment diabetic retinopathy study report number 2. Ophthalmology 1987 Jul 1; 94(7): 761-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(87)33527-4]
[83]
Zhang X, Zeng H, Bao S, Wang N, Gillies MC. Diabetic macular edema: New concepts in patho-physiology and treatment. Cell Biosci 2014; 4(1): 27.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/2045-3701-4-27] [PMID: 24955234]
[84]
Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study design and baseline patient characteristics: ETDRS report number 7. Ophthalmology 1991 May 1; 98(5): 741-56.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(13)38009-9]
[85]
Sun JK, Glassman AR, Beaulieu WT, et al. Rationale and application of the protocol s anti-vascular endothelial growth factor algorithm for proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology 2019; 126(1): 87-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2018.08.001] [PMID: 30096354]
[86]
Gross JG, Glassman AR, Liu D, et al. Five-year outcomes of panretinal photocoagulation vs. intravitreous ranibizumab for proliferative diabetic retinopathy. JAMA Ophthalmol 2018; 136(10): 1138-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2018.3255] [PMID: 30043039]
[87]
Gross JG, Glassman AR, Jampol LM, et al. Panretinal photocoagulation vs. intravitreous ranibizumab for proliferative diabetic retinopathy. JAMA 2015; 314(20): 2137-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.15217] [PMID: 26565927]
[88]
Sivaprasad S, Prevost AT, Vasconcelos JC, et al. Clinical efficacy of intravitreal aflibercept versus panretinal photocoagulation for best corrected visual acuity in patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy at 52 weeks (CLARITY): A multicentre, single-blinded, randomised, controlled, phase 2b, non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2017; 389(10085): 2193-203.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31193-5] [PMID: 28494920]
[89]
Lang GE, Stahl A, Voegeler J, et al. Efficacy and safety of ranibizumab with or without panretinal laser photocoagulation versus laser photocoagulation alone in proliferative diabetic retinopathy – the PRIDE study. Acta Ophthalmol 2020; 98(5): e530-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/aos.14312] [PMID: 31808278]
[90]
Lang GE, Stahl A, Voegeler J, et al. Observational outcomes in proliferative diabetic retinopathy patients following treatment with ranibizumab, panretinal laser photocoagulation or combination therapy-The non-interventional second year follow-up to the PRIDE study. Acta Ophthalmol 2021; 100(2): e578-87.
[PMID: 34121335]
[91]
Obeid A, Su D, Patel SN, et al. Outcomes of Eyes Lost to Follow-up with proliferative diabetic retinopathy that received panretinal photocoagulation versus intravitreal anti–vascular endothelial growth factor. Ophthalmology 2019; 126(3): 407-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2018.07.027] [PMID: 30077614]
[92]
Elman MJ, Aiello LP, Beck RW, et al. Randomized trial evaluating ranibizumab plus prompt or deferred laser or triamcinolone plus prompt laser for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 2010; 117(6): 1064-1077.e35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2010.02.031] [PMID: 20427088]
[93]
Mitchell P, Bandello F, Schmidt-Erfurth U, et al. The RESTORE study: Ranibizumab monotherapy or combined with laser versus laser monotherapy for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 2011; 118: 615-25.
[94]
Nguyen QD, Brown DM, Marcus DM, et al. Ranibizumab for diabetic macular edema: Results from 2 phase III randomized trials: RISE and RIDE. Ophthalmology 2012; 119(4): 789-801.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.12.039] [PMID: 22330964]
[95]
Korobelnik JF, Do DV, Schmidt-Erfurth U, et al. Intravitreal aflibercept for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 2014; 121(11): 2247-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2014.05.006] [PMID: 25012934]
[96]
Brown DM, Schmidt-Erfurth U, Do DV, et al. Intravitreal aflibercept for diabetic macular Edema. Ophthalmology 2015; 122(10): 2044-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2015.06.017] [PMID: 26198808]
[97]
Wells JA, Glassman AR, Ayala AR, et al. Aflibercept, bevacizumab, or ranibizumab for diabetic macular edema. N Engl J Med 2015; 372(13): 1193-203.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1414264] [PMID: 25692915]
[98]
Wells JA, Glassman AR, Ayala AR, et al. Aflibercept, bevacizumab, or ranibizumab for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 2016; 123(6): 1351-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2016.02.022] [PMID: 26935357]
[99]
Cai S, Bressler NM. Aflibercept, bevacizumab or ranibizumab for diabetic macular oedema. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2017; 28(6): 636-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ICU.0000000000000424] [PMID: 28837425]
[100]
Hirano T, Toriyama Y, Iesato Y, et al. Effect of leaking perifoveal microaneurysms on resolution of diabetic macular edema treated by combination therapy using anti-vascular endothelial growth factor and short pulse focal/grid laser photocoagulation. Jpn J Ophthalmol 2017; 61(1): 51-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10384-016-0483-8] [PMID: 27730425]
[101]
Fintak DR, Shah GK, Blinder KJ, et al. Incidence of endophthalmitis related to intravitreal injection of bevacizumab and ranibizumab. Retina 2008; 28(10): 1395-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/IAE.0b013e3181884fd2] [PMID: 18827737]
[102]
Pearson PA, Comstock TL, Ip M, et al. Fluocinolone acetonide intravitreal implant for diabetic macular edema: A 3-year multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial. Ophthalmology 2011; 118(8): 1580-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.02.048] [PMID: 21813090]
[103]
Bromeo AJ, Veloso A, Lerit SJ, Gomez MC. Tractional retinal detachment (‘crunch’ phenomenon) from intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor injection in central retinal vein occlusion. BMJ Case Rep 2021; 14(4): e240506.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2020-240506] [PMID: 33910794]
[104]
Raman R, Giridhar S, Verma L, et al. Diabetic macular edema treatment guidelines in India: All India Ophthalmological Society Diabetic Retinopathy Task Force and Vitreoretinal Society of India consensus statement. Indian J Ophthalmol 2021; 69(11): 3076-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/ijo.IJO_1469_21] [PMID: 34708746]
[105]
Martidis A, Duker JS, Greenberg PB, et al. Intravitreal triamcinolone for refractory diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 2002; 109(5): 920-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(02)00975-2] [PMID: 11986098]
[106]
Jonas JB, Söfker A, Hayler J, Degenring RF. Intravitreal crystalline triamcinolone acetonide as an additional tool in pars plana vitrectomy for complicated proliferative vitreoretinopathy? Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2003; 81(6): 663-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1395-3907.2003.0108.x] [PMID: 14641276]
[107]
Kim JH, Lee TG, Lew YJ. Short-term efficacy of intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for bevacizumab-resistant diabetic macular oedema. Acta Ophthalmol 2015; 93(2): e178-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/aos.12504] [PMID: 25043969]
[108]
Ahmadieh H, Ramezani A, Shoeibi N, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab with or without triamcinolone for refractory diabetic macular edema; a placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2008; 246(4): 483-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00417-007-0688-0] [PMID: 17917738]
[109]
Choi YJ, Oh IK, Oh JR, Huh K. Intravitreal versus posterior subtenon injection of triamcinolone acetonide for diabetic macular edema. Korean J Ophthalmol 2006; 20(4): 205-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3341/kjo.2006.20.4.205] [PMID: 17302204]
[110]
Qi HP, Bi S, Wei SQ, Cui H, Zhao JB. Intravitreal versus subtenon triamcinolone acetonide injection for diabetic macular edema: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr Eye Res 2012; 37(12): 1136-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/02713683.2012.705412] [PMID: 22793880]
[111]
Shimura M, Yasuda K, Minezaki T, Noma H. Reduction in the frequency of intravitreal bevacizumab administrations achieved by posterior subtenon injection of triamcinolone acetonide in patients with diffuse diabetic macular edema. Jpn J Ophthalmol 2016; 60(5): 401-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10384-016-0458-9] [PMID: 27306783]
[112]
Rishi P, Rishi E, Attiku Y, Dhami A, Iyer V. Real-world experience with pro re nata dosing of intravitreal dexamethasone implant for eyes with refractory diabetic macular edema. GMS Ophthalmol Cases 2020; 10: Doc21.
[PMID: 32676266]
[113]
Bansal P, Gupta V, Gupta A, Dogra MR, Ram J. Efficacy of Ozurdex implant in recalcitrant diabetic macular edema—a single-center experience. Int Ophthalmol 2016; 36(2): 207-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10792-015-0103-5] [PMID: 26233578]
[114]
Totan Y, Güler E. Gürağaç FB. Dexamethasone intravitreal implant for chronic diabetic macular edema resistant to intravitreal bevacizumab treatment. Curr Eye Res 2016; 41(1): 107-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/02713683.2014.1002048] [PMID: 25610946]
[115]
Wolfe JD, Shah AR, Xi M, et al. Short-term efficacy of intravitreal dexamethasone implant in vitrectomized eyes with recalcitrant diabetic macular edema and prior anti-VEGF therapy. J Ophthalmic Vis Res 2016; 11(2): 183-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2008-322X.183928] [PMID: 27413499]
[116]
Maturi RK, Glassman AR, Liu D, et al. Effect of adding dexamethasone to continued ranibizumab treatment in patients with persistent diabetic macular edema. JAMA Ophthalmol 2018; 136(1): 29-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2017.4914] [PMID: 29127949]
[117]
Coney JM. Fluocinolone acetonide 0.19 mg intravitreal implant improves foveal thickness and reduces treatment burden for up to 1 year in eyes with persistent diabetic macular edema. Int Med Case Rep J 2019; 12: 161-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/IMCRJ.S192524] [PMID: 31213929]
[118]
Chronopoulos A, Chronopoulos P, Ashurov A, Korb C, Pfeiffer N, Hattenbach LO. Switching to intravitreal fluocinolone acetonide implant for refractory diabetic macular edema: 12- and 24-month results. Eur J Ophthalmol 2021; 2021: 1120672121992982.
[PMID: 33601897]
[119]
McCluskey JD, Kaufman PL, Wynne K, Lewis G. Early adoption of the fluocinolone acetonide (FAc) intravitreal implant in patients with persistent or recurrent diabetic macular edema (DME). Int Med Case Rep J 2019; 12: 93-102.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/IMCRJ.S191171] [PMID: 31114396]
[120]
Pessoa B, Coelho J, Correia N, Ferreira N, Beirão M, Meireles A. Fluocinolone acetonide intravitreal implant 190 μg (ILUVIEN®) in vitrectomized versus nonvitrectomized eyes for the treatment of chronic diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmic Res 2018; 59(2): 68-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000484091] [PMID: 29248913]
[121]
Massin P, Erginay A, Dupas B, Couturier A, Tadayoni R. Efficacy and safety of sustained-delivery fluocinolone acetonide intravitreal implant in patients with chronic diabetic macular edema insufficiently responsive to available therapies: A real-life study. Clin Ophthalmol 2016; 10: 1257-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/OPTH.S105385] [PMID: 27468222]
[122]
Eckardt C. Transconjunctival sutureless 23-gauge vitrectomy. Retina 2005; 25(2): 208-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006982-200502000-00015] [PMID: 15689813]
[123]
Tomita Y, Kurihara T, Uchida A, et al. Wide-angle viewing system versus conventional indirect ophthalmoscopy for scleral buckling. Sci Rep 2015; 5(1): 13256.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep13256] [PMID: 26329974]
[124]
Fujii GY, de Juan E Jr, Humayun MS, et al. A new 25-gauge instrument system for transconjunctival sutureless vitrectomy surgery1 1The new Transconjunctival Sutureless Vitrectomy System is disclosed to Bausch and Lomb Surgical, St. Louis, MO. The Microsurgery Advanced Design Laboratory (MADLAB) may receive royalties related to the sale of this and other instruments mentioned in the article. Ophthalmology 2002; 109(10): 1807-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(02)01179-X] [PMID: 12359598]
[125]
Inoue M. Wide-angle viewing system. Dev Ophthalmol 2014; 54: 87-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000360453] [PMID: 25196756]
[126]
Mahmoud TH, Oellers P. Surgery for proliferative diabetic retinopathy: New tips and tricks. J Ophthalmic Vis Res 2016; 11(1): 93-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2008-322X.180697] [PMID: 27195092]
[127]
Zhang ZH, Liu HY, Hernandez-Da Mota SE, et al. Vitrectomy with or without preoperative intravitreal bevacizumab for proliferative diabetic retinopathy: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Ophthalmol 2013; 156(1): 106-115.e2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajo.2013.02.008] [PMID: 23791371]
[128]
Zhao X, Xia S, Chen Y. Antivascular endothelial growth factor agents pretreatment before vitrectomy for complicated proliferative diabetic retinopathy: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Ophthalmol 2018; 102(8): 1077-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjophthalmol-2017-311344] [PMID: 29246890]
[129]
Tachi N, Ogino N. Vitrectomy for diffuse macular edema in cases of diabetic retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 1996; 122(2): 258-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9394(14)72018-5] [PMID: 8694095]
[130]
Yamamoto T, Hitani K, Tsukahara I, et al. Early postoperative retinal thickness changes and complications after vitrectomy for diabetic macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol 2003; 135(1): 14-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9394(02)01819-6] [PMID: 12504691]
[131]
Lewis H, Abrams GW, Blumenkranz MS, Campo RV. Vitrectomy for diabetic macular traction and edema associated with posterior hyaloidal traction. Ophthalmology 1992; 99(5): 753-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(92)31901-3] [PMID: 1594222]
[132]
Park DW, Dugel PU, Garda J, et al. Macular pucker removal with and without internal limiting membrane peeling: Pilot study. Ophthalmology 2003; 110(1): 62-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(02)01440-9] [PMID: 12511347]
[133]
Doi N, Sakamoto T, Sonoda Y, et al. Comparative study of vitrectomy versus intravitreous triamcinolone for diabetic macular edema on randomized paired-eyes. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2012; 250(1): 71-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00417-011-1777-7] [PMID: 21853229]
[134]
Tomita Y, Lee D, Tsubota K, Kurihara T. PPARα agonist oral therapy in diabetic retinopathy. Biomedicines 2020; 8(10): 433.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines8100433] [PMID: 33086679]
[135]
Oosterveer MH, Grefhorst A, van Dijk TH, et al. Fenofibrate simultaneously induces hepatic fatty acid oxidation, synthesis, and elongation in mice. J Biol Chem 2009; 284(49): 34036-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M109.051052] [PMID: 19801551]
[136]
Arai T, Kim H, Chiba H, Matsumoto A. Interaction of fenofibrate and fish oil in relation to lipid metabolism in mice. J Atheroscler Thromb 2009; 16(3): 283-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5551/jat.E463] [PMID: 19556727]
[137]
Sasaki J, Yamamoto K, Ageta M. Effects of fenofibrate on high-density lipoprotein particle size in patients with hyperlipidemia: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter, crossover study. Clin Ther 2002; 24(10): 1614-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0149-2918(02)80064-9] [PMID: 12462290]
[138]
Mellies MJ, Stein EA, Khoury P, Lamkin G, Glueck CJ. Effects of fenofibrate on lipids, lipoproteins, and apolipoproteins in 33 subjects with primary hypercholesterolemia. Atherosclerosis 1987; 63(1): 57-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0021-9150(87)90082-7] [PMID: 3548734]
[139]
Sharma R, Mahajan M, Singh B, Bal BS, Kant R. Apolipoprotein modifying effects of statins and fibrate in various age groups of coronary artery disease patients. J Indian Med Assoc 2006; 104(9): 492-4.
[PMID: 17388006]
[140]
Keech A, Simes RJ, Barter P, et al. Effects of long-term fenofibrate therapy on cardiovascular events in 9795 people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (the FIELD study): Randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005; 366(9500): 1849-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67667-2] [PMID: 16310551]
[141]
Chew EY, Ambrosius WT, Davis MD, et al. Effects of medical therapies on retinopathy progression in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2010; 363(3): 233-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1001288] [PMID: 20587587]
[142]
Suto K, Fukuda D, Shinohara M, et al. Pemafibrate, a novel selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α modulator, reduces plasma eicosanoid levels and ameliorates endothelial dysfunction in diabetic mice. J Atheroscler Thromb 2021; 28(12): 1349-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5551/jat.61101] [PMID: 33775978]
[143]
Tomita Y, Lee D, Miwa Y, et al. Pemafibrate protects against retinal dysfunction in a murine model of diabetic retinopathy. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21(17): 6243.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21176243] [PMID: 32872333]
[144]
Shiono A, Sasaki H, Sekine R, et al. PPARα activation directly upregulates thrombomodulin in the diabetic retina. Sci Rep 2020; 10(1): 10837.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-67579-1] [PMID: 32616724]
[145]
Bakris GL, Agarwal R, Anker SD, et al. Effect of finerenone on chronic kidney disease outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2020; 383(23): 2219-29.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2025845] [PMID: 33264825]
[146]
Pitt B, Filippatos G, Agarwal R, et al. Cardiovascular events with finerenone in kidney disease and type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2021; 385(24): 2252-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2110956] [PMID: 34449181]
[147]
Rossing P, et al. Effect of finerenone on occurrence of vision-threatening complications in patients with non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy: Pooled analysis of two studies using routine ophthalmological examinations from clinical trial participants (ReFineDR/DeFineDR). Diabetes Obes Metab 2022; 25(3): 894-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dom.14915] [PMID: 36331803]
[148]
Marso SP, Bain SC, Consoli A, et al. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2016; 375(19): 1834-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1607141] [PMID: 27633186]
[149]
Husain M, Birkenfeld AL, Donsmark M, et al. Oral semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2019; 381(9): 841-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1901118] [PMID: 31185157]
[150]
Wang F, Mao Y, Wang H, Liu Y, Huang P. Semaglutide and diabetic retinopathy risk in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin Drug Investig 2022; 42(1): 17-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40261-021-01110-w] [PMID: 34894326]
[151]
A research study to look at how semaglutide compared to placebo affects diabetic eye disease in people with type 2 diabetes (FOCUS). NCT03811561 2019.
[152]
Chew EY, Mills JL, Metzger BE, et al. Metabolic control and progression of retinopathy: The diabetes in early pregnancy study. Diabetes Care 1995; 18(5): 631-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.18.5.631] [PMID: 8586000]
[153]
The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. Effect of pregnancy on microvascular complications in the diabetes control and complications trial. Diabetes Care 2000; 23(8): 1084-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.23.8.1084] [PMID: 10937502]
[154]
Tarantola RM, Folk JC, Boldt HC, Mahajan VB. Intravitreal bevacizumab during pregnancy. Retina 2010; 30(9): 1405-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/IAE.0b013e3181f57d58] [PMID: 20924262]
[155]
Petrou P, Georgalas I, Giavaras G, Anastasiou E, Ntana Z, Petrou C. Early loss of pregnancy after intravitreal bevacizumab injection. Acta Ophthalmol 2010; 88(4): e136.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-3768.2009.01572.x] [PMID: 19740128]
[156]
Sullivan L, Kelly SP, Glenn A, Williams CPR, McKibbin M. Intravitreal bevacizumab injection in unrecognised early pregnancy. Eye (Lond) 2014; 28(4): 492-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/eye.2013.311] [PMID: 24434664]
[157]
Ai X, Yu P, Hou Y, et al. A review of traditional Chinese medicine on treatment of diabetic retinopathy and involved mechanisms. Biomed Pharmacother 2020; 132: 110852.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110852] [PMID: 33065390]
[158]
Li W, Li W, Xing Q, et al. Progress in traditional chinese medicine on treatment of diabetic retinopathy. Nat Prod Commun 2022; 17(8): 1934578X221118547.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1934578X221118547]
[159]
Cai C, Zhang X, Hao L, Yang X. Experimental study on the effect of acupuncture on diabetic retinopathy. Zhongguo Zhenjiu 2002; 22: 186-8.
[160]
Li S, Chen H, Zheng H, Gui J, Xi G, Song J. Effect or acupuncture on retinopathy and study on its mechanisms in rats of experimental diabetes. Zhongguo Zhenjiu 1997; 7.
[161]
Ang L, Song E, Jun JH, Choi TY, Lee MS. Acupuncture for treating diabetic retinopathy: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Complement Ther Med 2020; 52: 102490.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2020.102490] [PMID: 32951739]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
47
2
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy