Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Respiratory Medicine Reviews

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1573-398X
ISSN (Online): 1875-6387

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Maternal Diabetes, Respiratory and other Disorders in Offspring: Shortterm and Long-term Outcomes

Author(s): Vasilii S. Chulkov*, Elena E. Minina and Larisa V. Medvedeva

Volume 19, Issue 2, 2023

Published on: 10 April, 2023

Page: [85 - 92] Pages: 8

DOI: 10.2174/1573398X19666230324102615

Price: $65

Abstract

Maternal diabetes during pregnancy, regardless of the type, is a risk factor for macrosomia or excessive fetal growth. Macrosomia and subsequent complications are the main short-term consequences of intrauterine exposure to gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Additionally, they have an increased risk of neonatal complications, such as congenital heart defects (CHDs) and central nervous system (CNS) congenital birth defects, hyperbilirubinemia, hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia, and polycythemia with their subsequent complications. More and more indisputable data are evidencing long-term consequences on offspring health in the case of diabetes. While most of this research has focused on metabolic and cardiovascular consequences, there is a growing body of evidence suggesting an impact of maternal diabetes on respiratory health, which is influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic environmental factors during fetal and postnatal development, with important implications for respiratory disorders in later life.

Keywords: Diabetes, asthma, respiratory disorders, gestational diabetes, gestational diabetes mellitus, congenital heart defects.

« Previous Next »
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Guerra JVS, Dias MMG, Brilhante AJVC, Terra MF, García-Arévalo M, Figueira ACM. Multifactorial basis and therapeutic strategies in metabolism-related diseases. Nutrients 2021; 13(8): 2830.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu13082830] [PMID: 34444990]
[2]
Chulkov VS, Lenets EA, Chulkov VS, Gavrilova ES, Minina EE, Zhdanova OV. Gender characteristics of the pathogenesis, prevention and treatment of metabolic syndrome. “Arterial’naya Gipertenziya” (“Arterial Hypertension”) 2020; 26(4): 371-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18705/1607-419X-2020-26-4-371-382]
[3]
Mitanchez D, Burguet A, Simeoni U. Infants born to mothers with gestational diabetes mellitus: mild neonatal effects, a long-term threat to global health. J Pediatr 2014; 164(3): 445-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.10.076] [PMID: 24331686]
[4]
Committee on Practice B-O Macrosomia. Macrosomia. Obstet Gynecol 2020; 135(1): e18-35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000003606] [PMID: 31856124]
[5]
Syundyukova EG, Medvedev BI, Chulkov VS, et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus: Outcomes of pregnancy and childbirth. Med Sci Educ Ural 2021; 108(4): 119-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.36361/1814-8999-2021-22-4-119-125]
[6]
Bayoumi MAA, Masri RM, Matani NYS, et al. Maternal and neonatal outcomes in mothers with diabetes mellitus in Qatari population. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2021; 21(1): 651.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12884-021-04124-6] [PMID: 34560839]
[7]
Azad MB, Moyce BL, Guillemette L, et al. Diabetes in pregnancy and lung health in offspring: Developmental origins of respiratory disease. Paediatr Respir Rev 2017; 21: 19-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.prrv.2016.08.007] [PMID: 27665512]
[8]
Yildiz Atar H, Baatz JE, Ryan RM. Molecular mechanisms of maternal diabetes effects on fetal and neonatal surfactant. Children 2021; 8(4): 281.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/children8040281] [PMID: 33917547]
[9]
Hanson MA, Gluckman PD. Early developmental conditioning of later health and disease: Physiology or pathophysiology? Physiol Rev 2014; 94(4): 1027-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00029.2013] [PMID: 25287859]
[10]
Murray SR, Reynolds RM. Short‐ and long‐term outcomes of gestational diabetes and its treatment on fetal development. Prenat Diagn 2020; 40(9): 1085-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pd.5768] [PMID: 32946125]
[11]
Damm P, Houshmand-Oeregaard A, Kelstrup L, Lauenborg J, Mathiesen ER, Clausen TD. Gestational diabetes mellitus and long-term consequences for mother and offspring: A view from Denmark. Diabetologia 2016; 59(7): 1396-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-016-3985-5] [PMID: 27174368]
[12]
Lowe WL Jr, Lowe LP, Kuang A, et al. HAPO Follow-up Study Cooperative Research Group. Maternal glucose levels during pregnancy and childhood adiposity in the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome Follow-up Study. Diabetologia 2019; 62(4): 598-610.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-018-4809-6] [PMID: 30648193]
[13]
Lowe WL, Scholtens DM, Lowe LP, et al. HAPO Follow-up Study Cooperative Research Group. Association of gestational diabetes with maternal disorders of glucose metabolism and childhood adiposity. JAMA 2018; 320(10): 1005-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.11628] [PMID: 30208453]
[14]
Xiang AH, Wang X, Martinez MP, et al. Maternal gestational diabetes mellitus, type 1 diabetes, and type 2 diabetes during pregnancy and risk of ADHD in offspring. Diabetes Care 2018; 41(12): 2502-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc18-0733] [PMID: 30373735]
[15]
Xiang AH, Wang X, Martinez MP, Page K, Buchanan TA, Feldman RK. Maternal Type 1 diabetes and risk of autism in offspring. JAMA 2018; 320(1): 89-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.7614] [PMID: 29936530]
[16]
Kramer CK, Campbell S, Retnakaran R. Gestational diabetes and the risk of cardiovascular disease in women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia 2019; 62(6): 905-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-019-4840-2] [PMID: 30843102]
[17]
Lowe WL Jr, Scholtens DM, Kuang A, et al. HAPO Follow-up Study Cooperative Research Group. Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome Follow-up Study (HAPO FUS): Maternal gestational diabetes mellitus and childhood glucose metabolism. Diabetes Care 2019; 42(3): 372-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc18-1646] [PMID: 30655380]
[18]
American Diabetes Association. 2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes: Standards of medical care in diabetes—2020. Diabetes Care 2020; 43 (Suppl. 1): S14-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc20-S002] [PMID: 31862745]
[19]
Hod M, Kapur A, Sacks DA, et al. The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) Initiative on gestational diabetes mellitus: A pragmatic guide for diagnosis, management, and care. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2015; 131 (Suppl. 3): S173-211.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7292(15)30033-3]
[20]
Martis R, Crowther CA, Shepherd E, Alsweiler J, Downie MR, Brown J. Treatments for women with gestational diabetes mellitus: An overview of Cochrane systematic reviews. Cochrane Libr 2018; 2018(8): CD012327.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012327.pub2] [PMID: 30103263]
[21]
Gabbay-Benziv R, Reece EA, Wang F, Yang P. Birth defects in pregestational diabetes: Defect range, glycemic threshold and pathogenesis. World J Diabetes 2015; 6(3): 481-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v6.i3.481] [PMID: 25897357]
[22]
Schraw JM, Langlois PH, Lupo PJ. Comprehensive assessment of the associations between maternal diabetes and structural birth defects in offspring: A phenome-wide association study. Ann Epidemiol 2021; 53: 14-20.e8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2020.08.006] [PMID: 32920098]
[23]
Zhang TN, Huang XM, Zhao XY, Wang W, Wen R, Gao SY. Risks of specific congenital anomalies in offspring of women with diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of population-based studies including over 80 million births. PLoS Med 2022; 19(2): e1003900.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003900] [PMID: 35104296]
[24]
Arendt LH, Pedersen LH, Pedersen L, et al. Glycemic control in pregnancies complicated by pre-existing diabetes mellitus and congenital malformations: A danish population-based study. Clin Epidemiol 2021; 13: 615-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/CLEP.S298748] [PMID: 34345185]
[25]
Murphy HR, Howgate C, O’Keefe J, et al. National Pregnancy in Diabetes (NPID) advisory group. Characteristics and outcomes of pregnant women with type 1 or type 2 diabetes: a 5-year national population-based cohort study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2021; 9(3): 153-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(20)30406-X] [PMID: 33516295]
[26]
Tinker SC, Gilboa SM, Moore CA, et al. Specific birth defects in pregnancies of women with diabetes: National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1997-2011. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2020; 222(2): 176.e1-176.e11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2019.08.028] [PMID: 31454511]
[27]
Billionnet C, Mitanchez D, Weill A, et al. Gestational diabetes and adverse perinatal outcomes from 716,152 births in France in 2012. Diabetologia 2017; 60(4): 636-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-017-4206-6] [PMID: 28197657]
[28]
Kaul P, Savu A, Yeung RO, Ryan EA. Association between maternal glucose and large for gestational outcomes: Real‐world evidence to support Hyperglycaemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes (HAPO) study findings. Diabet Med 2022; 39(6): e14786.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dme.14786] [PMID: 34995384]
[29]
McAteer JP, Hecht A, De Roos AJ, Goldin AB. Maternal medical and behavioral risk factors for congenital diaphragmatic hernia. J Pediatr Surg 2014; 49(1): 34-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2013.09.025] [PMID: 24439577]
[30]
Correa A, Gilboa SM, Besser LM, et al. Diabetes mellitus and birth defects. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2008; 199(3): 237.e1-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2008.06.028] [PMID: 18674752]
[31]
Yogev Y, Langer O. Spontaneous preterm delivery and gestational diabetes: The impact of glycemic control. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2007; 276(4): 361-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00404-007-0359-8] [PMID: 17429669]
[32]
Crump C, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. Preterm birth and risk of type 1 and type 2 diabetes: A national cohort study. Diabetologia 2020; 63(3): 508-18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-019-05044-z] [PMID: 31802143]
[33]
Zhang X, Decker A, Platt RW, Kramer MS. How big is too big? The perinatal consequences of fetal macrosomia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2008; 198(5): 517.e1-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2007.12.005] [PMID: 18455528]
[34]
Venkatesh KK, Lynch CD, Powe CE, et al. Risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes among pregnant individuals with gestational diabetes by race and ethnicity in the United States, 2014-2020. JAMA 2022; 327(14): 1356-67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2022.3189] [PMID: 35412565]
[35]
Tse BC, Block B, Figueroa H, Yao R. Adverse neonatal outcomes associated with pregestational diabetes mellitus in infants born preterm. Am J Obstet Gynecol MFM 2020; 2(4): 100213.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajogmf.2020.100213] [PMID: 33345923]
[36]
Yang J, Cummings EA. OʼConnell C, Jangaard K. Fetal and neonatal outcomes of diabetic pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 2006; 108(3, Part 1): 644-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000231688.08263.47] [PMID: 16946226]
[37]
Luisa Gonzalez-Gonzalez N, Ramirez O, Mozas J, et al. Factors influencing pregnancy outcome in women with type 2 versus type 1 diabetes mellitus. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2008; 87(1): 43-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00016340701778732] [PMID: 18158626]
[38]
Hedderson MM, Ferrara A, Sacks DA. Gestational diabetes mellitus and lesser degrees of pregnancy hyperglycemia: Association with increased risk of spontaneous preterm birth. Obstet Gynecol 2003; 102(4): 850-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006250-200310000-00030] [PMID: 14551018]
[39]
Östlund I, Hanson U, Björklund A, et al. Maternal and fetal outcomes if gestational impaired glucose tolerance is not treated. Diabetes Care 2003; 26(7): 2107-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.26.7.2107] [PMID: 12832321]
[40]
Al-Qattan MM, El-Sayed AAF, Al-Zahrani AY, et al. Obstetric brachial plexus palsy in newborn babies of diabetic and non-diabetic mothers. J Hand Surg Eur Vol 2010; 35(5): 362-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1753193410362645] [PMID: 20181773]
[41]
Kallem VR, Pandita A, Pillai A. Infant of diabetic mother: What one needs to know? J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2020; 33(3): 482-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14767058.2018.1494710] [PMID: 29947269]
[42]
Diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases during pregnancy 2018. National recommendations. Russ J Cardiol 2018; 23(7): 156-200.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15829/1560-4071-2018-7-156-200]
[43]
Li Y, Wang W, Zhang D. Maternal diabetes mellitus and risk of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome: A meta-analysis. Acta Diabetol 2019; 56(7): 729-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00592-019-01327-4] [PMID: 30955125]
[44]
Mortier I, Blanc J, Tosello B, Gire C, Bretelle F, Carcopino X. Is gestational diabetes an independent risk factor of neonatal severe respiratory distress syndrome after 34 weeks of gestation? A prospective study. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2017; 296(6): 1071-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00404-017-4505-7] [PMID: 28948345]
[45]
Vignoles P, Gire C, Mancini J, et al. Gestational diabetes: A strong independent risk factor for severe neonatal respiratory failure after 34 weeks. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2011; 284(5): 1099-104.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00404-010-1810-9] [PMID: 21170541]
[46]
Li Y, Zhang C, Zhang D. Cesarean section and the risk of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome: A meta-analysis. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2019; 300(3): 503-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00404-019-05208-7] [PMID: 31187205]
[47]
Riskin A, Itzchaki O, Bader D, Iofe A, Toropine A, Riskin-Mashiah S. Perinatal outcomes in infants of mothers with diabetes in pregnancy. Isr Med Assoc J 2020; 22(9): 569-75.
[PMID: 33236556]
[48]
Grev JE, Munger KM, Scott SM. Infant of a diabetic mother. S D Med 2020; 73(7): 323-7.
[PMID: 32805783]
[49]
Li HX, Gao CJ, Cheng S, Mao ZL, Wang HY. Risk factors for respiratory assistance in premature infants. Exp Ther Med 2021; 21(3): 237.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/etm.2021.9668] [PMID: 33603845]
[50]
Eriksson L, Haglund B, Odlind V, Altman M, Kieler H. Prenatal inflammatory risk factors for development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatr Pulmonol 2014; 49(7): 665-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ppul.22881] [PMID: 24039136]
[51]
Gϋemes M, Rahman SA, Kapoor RR, et al. Hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia in children and adolescents: Recent advances in understanding of pathophysiology and management. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2020; 21(4): 577-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11154-020-09548-7] [PMID: 32185602]
[52]
Grandi C, Tapia JL, Cardoso VC. Impact of maternal diabetes mellitus on mortality and morbidity of very low birth weight infants: A multicenter Latin America study. J Pediatr 2015; 91(3): 234-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jped.2014.08.007] [PMID: 25433204]
[53]
Bental Y, Reichman B, Shiff Y, et al. Impact of maternal diabetes mellitus on mortality and morbidity of preterm infants (24-33 weeks’ gestation). Pediatrics 2011; 128(4): e848-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-3443] [PMID: 21930550]
[54]
Al-Agha R, Kinsley BT, Finucane FM, et al. Caesarean section and macrosomia increase transient tachypnoea of the newborn in type 1 diabetes pregnancies. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2010; 89(3): e46-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2010.05.016] [PMID: 20576305]
[55]
Babooa N, Shi WJ, Chen C. Factors relating caesarean section to persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. World J Pediatr 2017; 13(6): 517-27.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12519-017-0056-z] [PMID: 29058246]
[56]
Salihu HM, Weldeselasse HE, Rao K, Marty PJ, Whiteman VE. The impact of obesity on maternal morbidity and feto-infant outcomes among macrosomic infants. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2011; 24(9): 1088-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/14767058.2010.546451] [PMID: 21250914]
[57]
Al-Shamrani A, Bagais K, Alenazi A, Alqwaiee M, Al-Harbi AS. Wheezing in children: Approaches to diagnosis and management. Int J Pediatr Adolesc Med 2019; 6(2): 68-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpam.2019.02.003] [PMID: 31388550]
[58]
Garcia-Marcos L, Mallol J, Solé D, Brand PLP. International study of wheezing in infants: Risk factors in affluent and non-affluent countries during the first year of life. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2010; 21(5): 878-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3038.2010.01035.x] [PMID: 20444158]
[59]
Zugna D, Galassi C, Annesi-Maesano I, et al. Maternal complications in pregnancy and wheezing in early childhood: A pooled analysis of 14 birth cohorts. Int J Epidemiol 2015; 44(1): 199-208.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyu260] [PMID: 25626439]
[60]
Liu X, Agerbo E, Li J, et al. Maternal pregestational or gestational diabetes and childhood wheezing: A population-based cohort study. Allergy 2018; 73(11): 2247-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/all.13551] [PMID: 29987908]
[61]
Azad MB, Chan-Yeung M, Chan ES, et al. Wheezing patterns in early childhood and the risk of respiratory and allergic disease in adolescence. JAMA Pediatr 2016; 170(4): 393-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.4127] [PMID: 26857593]
[62]
Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA).. 2021. Available from: https://ginasthma.org (Accessed on: May 24, 2022).
[63]
Mallol J, Crane J, von Mutius E, Odhiambo J, Keil U, Stewart A. The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) phase three: A global synthesis. Allergol Immunopathol 2013; 41(2): 73-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aller.2012.03.001] [PMID: 22771150]
[64]
Namazova-Baranova L, Ogorodova L, Tomilova A, et al. Prevalence of asthma-like symptoms and diagnosed asthma in the population of adolescents. Pediatr Pharmacol 2009; 9(3): 59-65.
[65]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/asthma/most_recent_national_asthma_data.htm
[66]
Chulkov V, Minina E, Medvedeva L, Testov R, Shestakov A. The clinical relevance of differential cell counts in induced sputum and its relationship with various forms of asthma. Curr Respir Med Rev 2021; 17(2): 69-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1573398X17666210611091246]
[67]
Zhakov YI, Minina EE, Medvedeva LV. Phenotypes in exacerbation of virus-induced asthma in children and their changes in dynamics. Russian Bulletin of Perinatology and Pediatrics 2015; 60(4): 229.
[68]
Zhakov YI, Minina EE, Medvedeva LV. Comparative analysis of inflammatory phenotypes of bronchial asthma in children during a preventive course of recombinant interferon alfa-2b. Voprosy Praktičeskoj Pediatrii 2020; 15(1): 87-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.20953/1817-7646-2020-1-87-94]
[69]
a) Wang R, Mihaicuta S, Tiotiu A, Corlateanu A, Ioan IC, Bikov A. Asthma and obstructive sleep apnoea in adults and children-an up-to-date review. Sleep Med Rev 2022; 61: 101564.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2021.101564] [PMID: 34902822];
b) Azad MB, Becker AB, Kozyrskyj AL. Association of maternal diabetes and child asthma. Pediatr Pulmonol 2013; 48(6): 545-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ppul.22668] [PMID: 22949269]
[70]
Aspberg S, Dahlquist G, Kahan T, Källén B. Confirmed association between neonatal phototherapy or neonatal icterus and risk of childhood asthma. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2010; 21(4p2): e733-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3038.2010.01038.x] [PMID: 20444150]
[71]
Haataja P, Korhonen P, Ojala R, et al. Asthma and atopic dermatitis in children born moderately and late preterm. Eur J Pediatr 2016; 175(6): 799-808.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00431-016-2708-8] [PMID: 26898703]
[72]
Risnes KR, Belanger K, Murk W, Bracken MB. Antibiotic exposure by 6 months and asthma and allergy at 6 years: Findings in a cohort of 1,401 US children. Am J Epidemiol 2011; 173(3): 310-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwq400] [PMID: 21190986]
[73]
Roy A, Kocak M, Hartman TJ, et al. Association of prenatal folate status with early childhood wheeze and atopic dermatitis. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2018; 29(2): 144-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pai.12834] [PMID: 29168294]
[74]
Tang J, Ma Y, Wu Y, et al. Associations between maternal complications during pregnancy and childhood asthma: A retrospective cohort study in southern China. medRxiv 2022.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2022.03.21.22272680]
[75]
Martinez MP, Lin J, Chow T, Chung J, Wang X, Xiang AH. Maternal gestational diabetes and Type 2 diabetes during pregnancy and risk of childhood asthma in offspring. J Pediatr 2020; 219: 173-179.e1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2019.12.053] [PMID: 31987655]
[76]
Kumar R, Ouyang F, Story RE, et al. Gestational diabetes, atopic dermatitis, and allergen sensitization in early childhood. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009; 124(5): 1031-8.e1-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2009.06.052]
[77]
Covantsev S, Corlateanu O, Volkov S, Uzdenov R, Botnaru V, Corlateanu A. COPD and Diabetes Mellitus: Down the rabbit hole. Curr Respir Med Rev 2022; 18(2)
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1573398X18666220411123508]
[78]
Scifres CM. Short-and long-term outcomes associated with large for gestational age birth weight. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 2021; 48(2): 325-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ogc.2021.02.005] [PMID: 33972069]
[79]
Bianco ME, Josefson JL. Hyperglycemia during pregnancy and long-term offspring outcomes. Curr Diab Rep 2019; 19(12): 143.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11892-019-1267-6] [PMID: 31754898]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
17
4
Wayfinder Image
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy