Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Molecular Pharmacology

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1874-4672
ISSN (Online): 1874-4702

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

A Review on Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Symptoms, Therapies and Recent Case Studies

Author(s): Amandeep Thakur, Diksha Choudhary*, Bhupinder Kumar* and Amit Chaudhary

Volume 15, Issue 3, 2022

Published on: 25 May, 2021

Article ID: e250521193586 Pages: 15

DOI: 10.2174/1874467214666210525160944

Price: $65

Abstract

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), previously known as battle fatigue syndrome or shell shock, is a severe mental disturbance condition that is normally triggered by the experience of some frightening/scary events or trauma where a person undergoes some serious physical or mental harm or threatened. PTSD is a long-life effect of the continuous occurrence of traumatic conditions, leading to the production of feelings of helplessness, intense fear, and horror in the person. There are various examples of events that can cause PTSD, such as physical, mental, or sexual assault at home or working place by others, unexpected death of a loved one, an accidental event, war, or some kind of natural disaster. Treatment of PTSD includes the removal or reduction of these emotional feelings or symptoms with the aim to improve the daily life functioning of a person. Problems which are needed to be considered in case of PTSD like ongoing trauma, abusive or bad relationships. Various drugs which are used for the treatment of PTSD include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) (citalopram, fluvoxamine, fluoxetine, etc.); tricyclic antidepressants (amitriptyline and isocarboxazid); mood stabilizers (Divalproex and lamotrigine); atypical antipsychotics (aripiprazole and quetiapine), etc. In this review, we have covered the different risk factors, case studies related to various treatment options with different age group of peoples with PTSD and their effects on them. We have also covered the symptoms and associated disorders which can play a key role in the development of PTSD.

Keywords: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), SSRIs, CBT, case studies, risk factors, acute stress disorder.

Graphical Abstract

[1]
Bavley, C.C.; Kabir, Z.D.; Walsh, A.P.; Kosovsky, M.; Hackett, J.; Sun, H.; Vázquez-Rosa, E.; Cintrón-Pérez, C.J.; Miller, E.; Koh, Y.; Pieper, A.A.; Rajadhyaksha, A.M. Dopamine D1R-neuron cacna1c deficiency: A new model of extinction therapy-resistant post-traumatic stress. Mol. Psychiatry, 2020, 1-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-0730-8] [PMID: 32332995]
[2]
Kim, T.D.; Lee, S.; Yoon, S. Inflammation in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A Review of Potential Correlates of PTSD with a Neurological Perspective. Antioxidants, 2020, 9(2), 107.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antiox9020107] [PMID: 31991875]
[3]
Verbitsky, A.; Dopfel, D.; Zhang, N. Rodent models of post-traumatic stress disorder: Behavioral assessment. Transl. Psychiatry, 2020, 10(1), 132.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-0806-x] [PMID: 32376819]
[4]
Bailey, K.; Trevillion, K.; Gilchrist, G. What works for whom and why: A narrative systematic review of interventions for reducing post-traumatic stress disorder and problematic substance use among women with experiences of interpersonal violence. J. Subst. Abuse Treat., 2019, 99, 88-103.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2018.12.007] [PMID: 30797400]
[5]
Petrosino, N.J.; Wout-Frank, M.V.; Aiken, E.; Swearingen, H.R.; Barredo, J.; Zandvakili, A.; Philip, N.S. One-year clinical outcomes following theta burst stimulation for post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2020, 45(6), 940-946.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41386-019-0584-4] [PMID: 31794974]
[6]
Matthias, U.; Zeilinger Elisabeth, L.; Matthäus, F.; Simone, L.; Katharina, K.; Nader Ingo, W.; Matthias, H.; Anna, K.; Feroniki, A.; Masel Eva, K. Prevalence of pain and its association with symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, and distress in 846 cancer patients: A cross sectional study. Psychooncology, 2020, 30(4), 504-510.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pon.5595] [PMID: 33210393]
[7]
Kim, J.B. A Study on the Development of Analysis Model using Artificial Intelligence Algorithms for PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder) Data. Int. J. Cur. Res. Rev. Vol., 2020, 12(16), 60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.31782/IJCRR.2020.12163]
[8]
Ben-Zion, Z.; Zeevi, Y.; Keynan, N.J.; Admon, R.; Kozlovski, T.; Sharon, H.; Halpern, P.; Liberzon, I.; Shalev, A.Y.; Benjamini, Y.; Hendler, T. Multi-domain potential biomarkers for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) severity in recent trauma survivors. Transl. Psychiatry, 2020, 10(1), 208.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-00898-z] [PMID: 32594097]
[9]
Reinhardt, J.D.; Zhang, X.; Van Dyke, C.; Ehrmann, C.; Li, L.; Zhao, Z.; Zhou, M.; Li, H. Post-traumatic stress disorder in a population of 2008 Wenchuan earthquake survivors with disabilities: The role of environmental barriers. Disabil. Rehabil., 2020, 1-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2020.1714756] [PMID: 31967909]
[10]
Rumball, F.; Happé, F.; Grey, N. Experience of Trauma and PTSD Symptoms in Autistic Adults: Risk of PTSD Development Following DSM-5 and Non-DSM-5 Traumatic Life Events. Autism Res., 2020, 13(12), 2122-2132.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aur.2306] [PMID: 32319731]
[11]
Dean, K.R.; Hammamieh, R.; Mellon, S.H.; Abu-Amara, D.; Flory, J.D.; Guffanti, G.; Wang, K.; Daigle, B.J., Jr; Gautam, A.; Lee, I.; Yang, R.; Almli, L.M.; Bersani, F.S.; Chakraborty, N.; Donohue, D.; Kerley, K.; Kim, T.K.; Laska, E.; Young Lee, M.; Lindqvist, D.; Lori, A.; Lu, L.; Misganaw, B.; Muhie, S.; Newman, J.; Price, N.D.; Qin, S.; Reus, V.I.; Siegel, C.; Somvanshi, P.R.; Thakur, G.S.; Zhou, Y.; Hood, L.; Ressler, K.J.; Wolkowitz, O.M.; Yehuda, R.; Jett, M.; Doyle, F.J., III; Marmar, C. Multi-omic biomarker identification and validation for diagnosing warzone-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Mol. Psychiatry, 2020, 25(12), 3337-3349.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41380-019-0496-z] [PMID: 31501510]
[12]
Kaseda, E.T.; Levine, A.J. Post-traumatic stress disorder: A differential diagnostic consideration for COVID-19 survivors. Clin. Neuropsychol., 2020, 34(7-8), 1498-1514.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2020.1811894] [PMID: 32847484]
[13]
Karam, E.G.; Fayyad, J.A.; Farhat, C.; Pluess, M.; Haddad, Y.C.; Tabet, C.C.; Farah, L.; Kessler, R.C. Role of childhood adversities and environmental sensitivity in the development of post-traumatic stress disorder in war-exposed Syrian refugee children and adolescents. Br. J. Psychiatry, 2019, 214(6), 354-360.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2018.272] [PMID: 30630553]
[14]
Foa, E.B.; McLean, C.P.; Zang, Y.; Rosenfield, D.; Yadin, E.; Yarvis, J.S.; Mintz, J.; Young-McCaughan, S.; Borah, E.V.; Dondanville, K.A.; Fina, B.A.; Hall-Clark, B.N.; Lichner, T.; Litz, B.T.; Roache, J.; Wright, E.C.; Peterson, A.L. Effect of prolonged exposure therapy delivered over 2 weeks vs 8 weeks vs present- centered therapy on PTSD symptom severity in military personnel: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA, 2018, 319(4), 354-364.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.21242] [PMID: 29362795]
[15]
Brown, L.A.; Belli, G.M.; Asnaani, A.; Foa, E.B. A review of the role of negative cognitions about oneself, others, and the world in the treatment of PTSD. Cognit. Ther. Res., 2019, 43(1), 143-173.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10608-018-9938-1]
[16]
Riello, M.; Purgato, M.; Bove, C.; MacTaggart, D.; Rusconi, E. Prevalence of post-traumatic symptomatology and anxiety among residential nursing and care home workers following the first COVID-19 outbreak in Northern Italy. R. Soc. Open Sci., 2020, 7(9), 200880.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.200880] [PMID: 33047047]
[17]
Fried, E.I.; Eidhof, M.B.; Palic, S.; Costantini, G.; Huisman-van Dijk, H.M.; Bockting, C.L.H.; Engelhard, I.; Armour, C.; Nielsen, A.B.S.; Karstoft, K-I. Replicability and generalizability of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) networks: A cross-cultural multisite study of PTSD symptoms in four trauma patient samples. Clin. Psychol. Sci., 2018, 6(3), 335-351.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2167702617745092] [PMID: 29881651]
[18]
Brunet, A.; Saumier, D.; Liu, A.; Streiner, D.L.; Tremblay, J.; Pitman, R.K. Reduction of PTSD symptoms with pre-reactivation propranolol therapy: A randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2018, 175(5), 427-433.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17050481] [PMID: 29325446]
[19]
Said, G.; King, D. Implementing Narrative Exposure Therapy for unaccompanied asylum-seeking minors with post-traumatic stress disorder: A pilot feasibility report. Clin. Child Psychol. Psychiatry, 2020, 25(1), 213-226.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1359104519864123] [PMID: 31315450]
[20]
Vermes, J.S.; Ayres, R.; Goés, A.S.; Real, N.D.; Araújo, Á.C.; Schiller, D.; Neto, F.L.; Corchs, F. Targeting the reconsolidation of traumatic memories with a brief 2-session imaginal exposure intervention in post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Affect. Disord., 2020, 276, 487-494.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.06.052] [PMID: 32794448]
[21]
Bapolisi, A.M.; Song, S.J.; Kesande, C.; Rukundo, G.Z.; Ashaba, S. Post-traumatic stress disorder, psychiatric comorbidities and associated factors among refugees in Nakivale camp in southwestern Uganda. BMC Psychiatry, 2020, 20(1), 53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-2480-1] [PMID: 32033558]
[22]
Rittmannsberger, D.; Weber, G.; Lueger‐Schuster, B. Applicability of the post‐traumatic stress disorder gate criterion in people with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities: Do additional adverse events impact current symptoms of PTSD in people with intellectual disabilities? J. Appl. Res. Intellect. Disabil., 2020, 33(5), 1100-1112.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jar.12732] [PMID: 32316075]
[23]
Lewis, C.; Lewis, K.; Kitchiner, N.; Isaac, S.; Jones, I.; Bisson, J.I. Sleep disturbance in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): A systematic review and meta-analysis of actigraphy studies. Eur. J. Psychotraumatol., 2020, 11(1), 1767349.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1767349] [PMID: 33029311]
[24]
Beni Yonis, O.; Khader, Y.; Jarboua, A.; Al-Bsoul, M.M.; Al-Akour, N.; Alfaqih, M.A.; Khatatbeh, M.M.; Amarneh, B. Post-traumatic stress disorder among Syrian adolescent refugees in Jordan. J. Public Health (Oxf.), 2020, 42(2), 319-324.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdz026] [PMID: 30927431]
[25]
Zhang, Y.; Ren, R.; Sanford, L.D.; Yang, L.; Ni, Y.; Zhou, J.; Zhang, J.; Wing, Y-K.; Shi, J.; Lu, L.; Tang, X. The effects of prazosin on sleep disturbances in post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med., 2020, 67, 225-231.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2019.06.010] [PMID: 31972510]
[26]
Bothe, T.; Jacob, J.; Kröger, C.; Walker, J. How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data. Eur. J. Health Econ., 2020, 21(6), 917-930.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10198-020-01184-x] [PMID: 32458163]
[27]
Adler, A.B.; Svetlitzky, V.; Gutierrez, I.A. Post-traumatic stress disorder risk and witnessing team members in acute psychological stress during combat. BJPsych Open, 2020, 6(5), e98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2020.81] [PMID: 32878671]
[28]
Hoeboer, C.M.; De Kleine, R.A.; Molendijk, M.L.; Schoorl, M.; Oprel, D.A.C.; Mouthaan, J.; Van der Does, W.; Van Minnen, A. Impact of dissociation on the effectiveness of psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: Meta-analysis. BJPsych Open, 2020, 6(3), e53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2020.30] [PMID: 32423501]
[29]
Repantis, D.; Wermuth, K.; Tsamitros, N.; Danker-Hopfe, H.; Bublitz, J.C.; Kühn, S.; Dresler, M. REM sleep in acutely traumatized individuals and interventions for the secondary prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder. Eur. J. Psychotraumatol., 2020, 11(1), 1740492.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1740492] [PMID: 32341766]
[30]
Forresi, B.; Soncini, F.; Bottosso, E.; Di Pietro, E.; Scarpini, G.; Scaini, S.; Aggazzotti, G.; Caffo, E.; Righi, E. Post-traumatic stress disorder, emotional and behavioral difficulties in children and adolescents 2 years after the 2012 earthquake in Italy: An epidemiological cross-sectional study. Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 2020, 29(2), 227-238.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00787-019-01370-0] [PMID: 31302773]
[31]
Schnell, T.; Suhr, F.; Weierstall-Pust, R. Post-traumatic stress disorder in volunteer firefighters: Influence of specific risk and protective factors. Eur. J. Psychotraumatol., 2020, 11(1), 1764722.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1764722] [PMID: 33029308]
[32]
Gualtieri, G.; Ferretti, F.; Masti, A.; Pozza, A.; Coluccia, A. Post- traumatic Stress Disorder in Prisoners’ Offspring: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Clin. Pract. Epidemiol. Ment. Health, 2020, 16, 36-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1745017902016010036] [PMID: 32508968]
[33]
Jung, H.; Jung, S.Y.; Lee, M.H.; Kim, M.S. Assessing the Presence of Post-Traumatic Stress and Turnover Intention Among Nurses Post-Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Outbreak: The Importance of Supervisor Support. Workplace Health Saf., 2020, 68(7), 337-345.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2165079919897693] [PMID: 32146875]
[34]
Sander, L.B.; Schorndanner, J.; Terhorst, Y.; Spanhel, K.; Pryss, R.; Baumeister, H.; Messner, E-M. ‘Help for trauma from the app stores?’ A systematic review and standardised rating of apps for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Eur. J. Psychotraumatol., 2020, 11(1), 1701788.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1701788] [PMID: 32002136]
[35]
María-Ríos, C.E.; Morrow, J.D. Mechanisms of Shared Vulnerability to Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Substance Use Disorders. Front. Behav. Neurosci., 2020, 14, 6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00006] [PMID: 32082127]
[36]
Sydnor, V.J.; Bouix, S.; Pasternak, O.; Hartl, E.; Levin-Gleba, L.; Reid, B.; Tripodis, Y.; Guenette, J.P.; Kaufmann, D.; Makris, N.; Fortier, C.; Salat, D.H.; Rathi, Y.; Milberg, W.P.; McGlinchey, R.E.; Shenton, M.E.; Koerte, I.K. Mild traumatic brain injury impacts associations between limbic system microstructure and post- traumatic stress disorder symptomatology. Neuroimage Clin., 2020, 26, 102190.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102190] [PMID: 32070813]
[37]
Lewis, C.; Roberts, N.P.; Gibson, S.; Bisson, J.I. Dropout from psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur. J. Psychotraumatol., 2020, 11(1), 1709709.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1709709] [PMID: 32284816]
[38]
Dale, M.T.G.; Nissen, A.; Berthelsen, M.; Heir, T. Post-traumatic stress reactions and doctor-certified sick leave after a workplace terrorist attack: Norwegian cohort study. BMJ Open, 2020, 10(2), e032693.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-032693] [PMID: 32066602]
[39]
Mithoefer, M.C.; Feduccia, A.A.; Jerome, L.; Mithoefer, A.; Wagner, M.; Walsh, Z.; Hamilton, S.; Yazar-Klosinski, B.; Emerson, A.; Doblin, R. MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for treatment of PTSD: Study design and rationale for phase 3 trials based on pooled analysis of six phase 2 randomized controlled trials. Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 2019, 236(9), 2735-2745.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-019-05249-5] [PMID: 31065731]
[40]
Zoladz, P.R. Animal models for the discovery of novel drugs for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Opin. Drug Discov., 2021, 16(2), 135-146.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17460441.2020.1820982] [PMID: 32921163]
[41]
Bryant, R.A. Post-traumatic stress disorder: A state-of-the-art review of evidence and challenges. World Psychiatry, 2019, 18(3), 259-269.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wps.20656] [PMID: 31496089]
[42]
Bailey, K.; Trevillion, K.; Gilchrist, G. “We have to put the fire out first before we start rebuilding the house”: Practitioners’ experiences of supporting women with histories of substance use, interpersonal abuse and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. Addict. Res. Theory, 2020, 28(4), 289-297.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16066359.2019.1644323]
[43]
Malin, K.J.; Johnson, T.S.; McAndrew, S.; Westerdahl, J.; Leuthner, J.; Lagatta, J. Infant illness severity and perinatal post-traumatic stress disorder after discharge from the neonatal intensive care unit. Early Hum. Dev., 2019, 140, 104930.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2019.104930] [PMID: 31759276]
[44]
Wang, Y-X.; Guo, H-T.; Du, X-W.; Song, W.; Lu, C.; Hao, W-N. Factors associated with post-traumatic stress disorder of nurses exposed to corona virus disease 2019 in China. Medicine (Baltimore), 2020, 99(26), e20965-e20965.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000020965] [PMID: 32590808]
[45]
Yin, Q.; Zhang, H.; Shang, Z.; Wu, L.; Sun, Z.; Zhang, F.; Zhou, Y.; Song, X.; Liu, W. Risk factors for PTSD of Shidu parents who lost the only child in a rapid aging process: A cross-sectional study. BMC Psychiatry, 2020, 20(1), 37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-2446-3] [PMID: 32000723]
[46]
Stylianou, A.M.; Nikolova, K.; Ebright, E.; Rodriguez, A. Predictors of family engagement in child post-traumatic stress disorder screening following exposure to intimate partner violence. J. Interpers. Violence, 2020, 886260520933047.
[PMID: 32589488]
[47]
Bartoli, F.; Crocamo, C.; Carrà, G. Metabolic dysfunctions in people with post-traumatic stress disorder. Trauma Psychopathol. Boundaries Treat., 2020, 26, 85-91.
[48]
Bustamante, L.H.U.; Cerqueira, R.O.; Leclerc, E.; Brietzke, E. Stress, trauma, and posttraumatic stress disorder in migrants: A comprehensive review. Br. J. Psychiatry, 2017, 40(2), 220-225.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2017-2290] [PMID: 29069252]
[49]
Nygaard, M.; Sonne, C.; Carlsson, J. Secondary psychotic features in refugees diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder: A retrospective cohort study. BMC Psychiatry, 2017, 17(1), 5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-1166-1] [PMID: 28056884]
[50]
True, W.R.; Rice, J.; Eisen, S.A.; Heath, A.C.; Goldberg, J.; Lyons, M.J.; Nowak, J. A twin study of genetic and environmental contributions to liability for posttraumatic stress symptoms. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1993, 50(4), 257-264.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820160019002] [PMID: 8466386]
[51]
Voisey, J.; Young, R.M.; Lawford, B.R.; Morris, C.P. Progress towards understanding the genetics of posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Anxiety Disord., 2014, 28(8), 873-883.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.09.014] [PMID: 25445077]
[52]
Zuschlag, Z.D.; Compean, E.; Nietert, P.; Lauzon, S.; Hamner, M.; Wang, Z. Dopamine transporter (DAT1) gene in combat veterans with PTSD: A case-control study. Psychiatry Res., 2021, 298, 113801.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113801] [PMID: 33636518]
[53]
Uddin, M.; Chang, S.C.; Zhang, C.; Ressler, K.; Mercer, K.B.; Galea, S.; Keyes, K.M.; McLaughlin, K.A.; Wildman, D.E.; Aiello, A.E.; Koenen, K.C. Adcyap1r1 genotype, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression among women exposed to childhood maltreatment. Depress. Anxiety, 2013, 30(3), 251-258.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.22037] [PMID: 23280952]
[54]
Boscarino, J.A.; Erlich, P.M.; Hoffman, S.N.; Rukstalis, M.; Stewart, W.F. Association of FKBP5, COMT and CHRNA5 polymorphisms with PTSD among outpatients at risk for PTSD. Psychiatry Res., 2011, 188(1), 173-174.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2011.03.002] [PMID: 21440309]
[55]
Smith, A.K.; Ratanatharathorn, A.; Maihofer, A.X.; Naviaux, R.K.; Aiello, A.E.; Amstadter, A.B.; Ashley-Koch, A.E.; Baker, D.G.; Beckham, J.C.; Boks, M.P. Epigenome-wide meta-analysis of PTSD across 10 military and civilian cohorts identifies methylation changes in AHRR. Nat. Commun., 2020, 11(1), 5965.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19615-x] [PMID: 33235198]
[56]
Katrinli, S.; Zheng, Y.; Gautam, A.; Hammamieh, R.; Yang, R.; Venkateswaran, S.; Kilaru, V.; Lori, A.; Hinrichs, R.; Powers, A.; Gillespie, C.F.; Wingo, A.P.; Michopoulos, V.; Jovanovic, T.; Wolf, E.J.; McGlinchey, R.E.; Milberg, W.P.; Miller, M.W.; Kugathasan, S.; Jett, M.; Logue, M.W.; Ressler, K.J.; Smith, A.K. PTSD is associated with increased DNA methylation across regions of HLA-DPB1 and SPATC1L. Brain Behav. Immun., 2021, 91, 429-436.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.10.023] [PMID: 33152445]
[57]
Dietrich, H.; Al Ali, R.; Tagay, S.; Hebebrand, J.; Reissner, V. Screening for posttraumatic stress disorder in young adult refugees from Syria and Iraq. Compr. Psychiatry, 2019, 90, 73-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.11.001] [PMID: 30763787]
[58]
Powell, T.M.; Shin, O.J.; Li, S-J.; Hsiao, Y. Post-traumatic stress, social, and physical health: A mediation and moderation analysis of Syrian refugees and Jordanians in a border community. PLoS One, 2020, 15(10), e0241036.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241036] [PMID: 33095832]
[59]
Watkins, L.E.; Sprang, K.R.; Rothbaum, B.O. Treating PTSD: A review of evidence-based psychotherapy interventions. Front. Behav. Neurosci., 2018, 12, 258.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00258] [PMID: 30450043]
[60]
Mavranezouli, I.; Megnin-Viggars, O.; Daly, C.; Dias, S.; Welton, N.J.; Stockton, S.; Bhutani, G.; Grey, N.; Leach, J.; Greenberg, N.; Katona, C.; El-Leithy, S.; Pilling, S. Psychological treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: A network meta-analysis. Psychol. Med., 2020, 50(4), 542-555.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720000070] [PMID: 32063234]
[61]
Ashfield, E.; Chan, C.; Lee, D. Building ‘a compassionate armour’: The journey to develop strength and self-compassion in a group treatment for complex post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol. Psychother., 2020, 94(Suppl. 2), 286-303.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/papt.12275] [PMID: 32306537]
[62]
Impey, B.; Gordon, R.P.; Baldwin, D.S. Anxiety disorders, post- traumatic stress disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder. Medicine (Baltimore), 2020, 48(11), 717-723.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mpmed.2020.08.005]
[63]
Kim, J.H.; Choi, J.Y. Influence of childhood trauma and post-traumatic stress symptoms on impulsivity: Focusing on differences according to the dimensions of impulsivity. Eur. J. Psychotraumatol., 2020, 11(1), 1796276.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1796276] [PMID: 33029332]
[64]
Kildahl, A.N.; Helverschou, S.B.; Bakken, T.L.; Oddli, H.W. “Driven and Tense, Stressed Out and Anxious”: Clinicians’ Perceptions of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptom Expressions in Adults with Autism and Intellectual Disability. J. Mental Health Res. Intellect. Dis., 2020, 201-230.
[65]
Roccella, M. Children and Coronavirus Infection (Covid-19): What to Tell Children to Avoid Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Open Pediatr. Med. J., 2020, 10(1), 1-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874309902010010001]
[66]
Wallace, D.; Jallat, E.; Jetly, R. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder or Post-Traumatic Stress Injury: What’s in a name? J. Mil. Veterans Health, 2020, 28(1), 39.
[67]
Pate, K.M. A Comprehensive Review of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in Children. 2020, 263.
[68]
Thompson-Hollands, J.; Strage, M.; DeVoe, E.R.; Beidas, R.S.; Sloan, D.M. Development of a brief adjunctive intervention for family members of veterans in individual PTSD treatment. Cognit. Behav. Pract., 2020, 28(2), 193-209.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2020.06.007]
[69]
Lazarov, A.; Suarez-Jimenez, B.; Levi, O.; Coppersmith, D.D.L.; Lubin, G.; Pine, D.S.; Bar-Haim, Y.; Abend, R.; Neria, Y. Symptom structure of PTSD and co-morbid depressive symptoms - a network analysis of combat veteran patients. Psychol. Med., 2020, 50(13), 2154-2170.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291719002034] [PMID: 31451119]
[70]
Nichter, B.; Norman, S.; Haller, M.; Pietrzak, R.H. Psychological burden of PTSD, depression, and their comorbidity in the U.S. veteran population: Suicidality, functioning, and service utilization. J. Affect. Disord., 2019, 256, 633-640.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.06.072] [PMID: 31299445]
[71]
Fitzpatrick, S.; Saraiya, T.; Lopez-Castro, T.; Ruglass, L.M.; Hien, D. The impact of trauma characteristics on post-traumatic stress disorder and substance use disorder outcomes across integrated and substance use treatments. J. Subst. Abuse Treat., 2020, 113, 107976.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2020.01.012] [PMID: 32059924]
[72]
Barawi, K.S.; Lewis, C.; Simon, N.; Bisson, J.I. A systematic review of factors associated with outcome of psychological treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder. Eur. J. Psychotraumatol., 2020, 11(1), 1774240.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1774240] [PMID: 33029317]
[73]
Mavranezouli, I.; Megnin-Viggars, O.; Daly, C.; Dias, S.; Stockton, S.; Meiser-Stedman, R.; Trickey, D.; Pilling, S. Research Review: Psychological and psychosocial treatments for children and young people with post-traumatic stress disorder: A network meta-analysis. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry, 2020, 61(1), 18-29.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13094] [PMID: 31313834]
[74]
Speer, K.E.; Semple, S.; Naumovski, N.; D’Cunha, N.M.; McKune, A.J. HPA axis function and diurnal cortisol in post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review. Neurobiol. Stress, 2019, 11, 100180.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2019.100180] [PMID: 31236437]
[75]
Leroy, A.; Very, E.; Birmes, P.; Szaffarczyk, S.; Lopes, R.; Faure, C.; Duhem, S.; Grandgenèvre, P.; Warembourg, F.; Vaiva, G. Intrusive experiences in post-traumatic stress disorder: Treatment response induces changes in the effective connectivity of the anterior insula. bioRxiv, 2020, 1-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2020.10.01.319269]
[76]
Kumar, R.R.; Sahu, B.; Pathania, S.; Singh, P.K.; Akhtar, M.J.; Kumar, B. Piperazine, a key sub-structure for anti-depressants: Its role in developments and structure-activity relationship. ChemMedChem, 2021, 16(12), 1878-1901.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cmdc.202100045] [PMID: 33751807]
[77]
O’Connor, M. Adjunctive therapy with brexpiprazole improves treatment resistant complex post traumatic stress disorder in domestic family violence victims. Austr. Psychiatry, 2020, 1039856219889303.
[78]
Hruschak, V.; Hildenbrand, A.K.; Cochran, G. Psychiatric comorbidity and co-occurring opioid misuse: Depression mediates the relationship between post-traumatic stress disorder and opioid misuse in community pharmacy settings. Subst. Abus., 2020, 41(1), 77-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2019.1621238] [PMID: 31638877]
[79]
Snoek, A.; Beekman, A.T.F.; Dekker, J.; Aarts, I.; van Grootheest, G.; Blankers, M.; Vriend, C.; van den Heuvel, O.; Thomaes, K. A randomized controlled trial comparing the clinical efficacy and cost-effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) and integrated EMDR-Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT) in the treatment of patients with post-traumatic stress disorder and comorbid (Sub)clinical borderline personality disorder: Study design. BMC Psychiatry, 2020, 20(1), 396.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02713-x] [PMID: 32762677]
[80]
Young, B.; Blake, D. Group Treatment for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Conceptualization, Themes and Processes; Routledge, 2020.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203778166]
[81]
Liang, L.; Gao, T.; Ren, H.; Cao, R.; Qin, Z.; Hu, Y.; Li, C.; Mei, S. Post-traumatic stress disorder and psychological distress in Chinese youths following the COVID-19 emergency. J. Health Psychol., 2020, 25(9), 1164-1175.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1359105320937057] [PMID: 32627606]
[82]
Pozza, A.; Coluccia, A.; Gualtieri, G.; Carabellese, F.; Masti, A.; Ferretti, F. Post-traumatic stress disorder secondary to manic episodes with hypersexuality in bipolar disorder: A case study of forensic psychotherapy. Clin. Neuropsychiatry, 2020, 17(3), 181-188.
[83]
Ferrafiat, V.; Soleimani, M.; Chaumette, B.; Martinez, A.; Guilé, J-M.; Keeshin, B.; Gerardin, P. Use of prazosin for pediatric post- traumatic stress disorder with nightmares and/or sleep disorder: Case series of 18 patients prospectively assessed. Front. Psychiatry, 2020, 11, 724.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00724] [PMID: 32774309]
[84]
Ogbeide, S.A.; Young, A.; Houston, B.; Knight, C. Treating post- traumatic stress disorder with a prolonged exposure protocol within primary care behavioral health: A case example. J. Clin. Psychol. Med. Settings, 2020, [Online Ahead of Print].
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10880-020-09747-z] [PMID: 33090302]
[85]
Mojtabavi, H.; Saghazadeh, A.; van den Heuvel, L.; Bucker, J.; Rezaei, N. Peripheral blood levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 2020, 15(11), e0241928.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241928] [PMID: 33152026]
[86]
Baas, M.A.M.; van Pampus, M.G.; Braam, L.; Stramrood, C.A.I.; de Jongh, A. The effects of PTSD treatment during pregnancy: Systematic review and case study. Eur. J. Psychotraumatol., 2020, 11(1), 1762310.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1762310] [PMID: 33029304]
[87]
Alsan, M.; Wanamaker, M.; Hardeman, R.R. The Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis: A case study in peripheral trauma with implications for health professionals. J. Gen. Intern. Med., 2020, 35(1), 322-325.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11606-019-05309-8] [PMID: 31646456]
[88]
Husband, A.; Ahmed, A.; Dell, C.A. An exploratory case study of the impact of psychiatric service dogs on problematic substance use among PTSD-diagnosed veterans. J. Subst. Use, 2020, 25(2), 113-117.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14659891.2019.1664663]
[89]
Rajan, G.; Wachtler, C.; Lee, S.; Wändell, P.; Philips, B.; Wahlström, L.; Svedin, C.G.; Carlsson, A.C. A One-Session Treatment of PTSD After Single Sexual Assault Trauma. A Pilot Study of the WONSA MLI Project: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J. Interpers. Violence, 2020, 886260520965973.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0886260520965973] [PMID: 33084475]
[90]
Wolowski, A.; Eger, T.; Braas, R.; Gohr, J.; Weber, N.; Witanski, K.; Wörner, F. Long-term effects of splint therapy in patients with posttraumatic stress disease (PTSD). Clin. Oral Investig., 2020, 24(4), 1493-1497.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00784-019-03184-5] [PMID: 31950294]
[91]
Stavropoulos, K.K-M.; Bolourian, Y.; Blacher, J. Differential diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder and post traumatic stress disorder: Two clinical cases. J. Clin. Med., 2018, 7(4), 71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcm7040071] [PMID: 29642485]
[92]
Jabbar, S.A.; Zaza, H.I. Post-traumatic Stress and Depression (PSTD) and general anxiety among Iraqi refugee children: A case study from Jordan. Early Child Dev. Care, 2019, 189(7), 1114-1134.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2017.1369974]
[93]
Khan, K.; Charters, J.; Graham, T.L.; Nasriani, H.R.; Ndlovu, S.; Mai, J. A case study of the effects of posttraumatic stress disorder on operational fire service personnel within the Lancashire fire and rescue service. Saf. Health Work, 2018, 9(3), 277-289.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.shaw.2017.11.002] [PMID: 30370159]
[94]
Shelef, A.; Brafman, D.; Rosing, T.; Weizman, A.; Stryjer, R.; Barak, Y. Equine assisted therapy for patients with post traumatic stress disorder: A case series study. Mil. Med., 2019, 184(9-10), 394-399.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usz036] [PMID: 30839068]
[95]
Fleurkens, P.; Hendriks, L.; van Minnen, A. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) in a forensic patient with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) resulting from homicide: A case study. J. Forensic Psychiatry Psychol., 2018, 29(6), 901-913.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2018.1459786]
[96]
Coetzee, O. Complex PTSD in relatives of people with ID: An illustrative clinical case study from South Africa. Psychoanal. Psychother., 2019, 33(3), 175-191.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02668734.2019.1650815]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
190
2
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy