Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Space Dangers: Outer Space Perils, Rocket Risks and the Health Consequences of the Space Environment

This initial chapter considered the threats posed by asteroids in space and to the Earth. Asteroids were defined and exemplified through examination of 99924 Apophis, which will pass close by the Earth on April 13, 2029. The origins of asteroids in the Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud were documented and explained, and the role of iceteroids in the formation of asteroids was mentioned. Asteroid families and groups were discussed. It was noted that only a small number of the estimated million asteroids of about one-kilometer in diameter are known. It was documented that smaller asteroids pose the biggest risk to the Earth and spacefarers. The results of a joint NASA/FEMA simulation of an East Coast asteroid strike were provided. The danger of asteroid orbital shift was recognized. It was concluded that a sizeable asteroid impact with the Earth is inevitable. The significant number of asteroids was revealed through estimates of their quantification from a variety of sources. Earth-crossing asteroids were defined, explained, exemplified and quantified. A pair of potentially dangerous asteroids was considered. The existence of water on Ceres was documented.

Near-Earth asteroids are asteroids, but a particular type of that space object. They are generally considered as the most dangerous to the Earth, because of their proximity to our planet. In this chapter near-Earth asteroids were defined and described. The number of NEAs and large NEAs was estimated, and recent examples of NEAs provided. The threshold for being included as an NEA was noted as being 3 million miles from the Earth. The existence of NEA streams was documented, and binary NEAs were documented. The odds of an NEA strike in the next decade were estimated at one in 10,000. An increasing number of NEAs was noted. Near- Earth objects were also defined. The Near Earth Object Coordination Center and NASA’s Near Earth Object program were discussed. Near-Earth Objects were quantified and the number of potentially hazardous objects was noted. It was also clear that the number of NEOs is increasing.

Comets, like asteroids, are considered a threat to those on planet Earth. There is some belief that comets pose a substantially greater risk than asteroids. This chapter defined and described comets. The concept of great comets was discussed and exemplified. Vast numbers of ‘iceteroids,’ which may be understood as pre-cometary cosmic phenomenon, are thought to populate both the Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud. The number of comets was discussed. Comets have random orbits due to their composition and orbit and the implications of this phenomenon were explained. The devastating nature of a comet impact on the Earth was considered. It was noted that there will most likely be relatively little advance warning of the approach of a killer comet. The impressive durability of comets was discussed. The concept of a comet shower was postulated. Comet groups were discussed. The Rosetta study of the Churyumov-Gerasimenko comet was explained.

Known by a variety of names, depending upon their relationship to our planet, meteors are much like asteroids in some respects. They are naturally-occurring solid orbital space objects of great consequence to the Earth. Meteors, meteorites, and meteoroids were defined and differentiated, with their interrelationships explained. The amount of meteoroid material deposited daily on the Earth was quantified, as was the number of meteoroid strikes annually. The number of known meteors was estimated, and the number of meteor craters documented. Meteoroid strikes on buildings were examined and dangers posed by meteors to space travelers discussed. The 2013 case of a meteoroid exploding above Chelabyinsk, Russia, was documented. Recent reanalysis of meteoroid risk analysis data revealed that the danger of a meteoroid strike has been underestimated by a factor of four or five times.

Space debris is the topic of this chapter. It will be realized that space debris poses real threats to the Earth. Similarly, there are risks in space resulting from these discarded and unwanted space objects. Space debris poses a substantial risk to the International Space Station and to spacecraft in space. Space debris is a rising concern, and such material constitutes a growing threat. A disaster will inevitably result from space debris. Space debris was quantified, and the volume of space debris material was shown to be increasing.

In this chapter satellites were defined. The commercial, military, political and economic importance of satellites was explained and documented. The number of satellites was quantified, and it was noted that the number of satellites is continuously increasing. The concept of a geosynchronous orbit was explained, and the saturation of this geosynchronous zone by too many satellites was documented. The fact that satellites regularly crash to Earth was exemplified. The need to manage and maximize the safety of satellite traffic in the public interest was emphasized.

The potentially devastating consequences of radiation on humans and spacecraft were examined in this chapter. Radiation was defined and explained. The deadly nature of gamma rays and cosmic rays was discussed. Solar particles were considered. The significant amount of radiation was discussed. M dwarf stars were considered as were solar flares. Energetic transient radiation events were discussed. The emerging concept of muons was recognized.

This chapter discussed the concept of the black hole. Black holes were defined and differentiated into three groups; mini-black holes, intermediate black holes and supermassive black holes. Black hole effects include extraordinary gravitational pull and the emission of radiation. Matter is also crushed into zero volume, and the spaghettification phenomenon means that black holes stretch things to death. Black holes are fearsome objects, in part because they are dangerous from a distance and also because you can accidentally get relatively close to them. The future destruction of the Earth by a black hole was vividly described. There are about two dozen black holes in the Milky Way and millions in the universe. The dangers posed by the accretion disk were explained and described.

Space weather was the subject of this chapter. Space weather was defined and both solar and non-solar causes were considered. Geomagnetic storms were discussed. The potentially lethal nature of CMEs was examined. Solar flares and their extreme consequences for the Earth were analyzed, as were sunspots. The destructive effects of space weather were discussed. Space weather studies were considered, as was space weather radar and a space weather shield. Three types of solar storms were mentioned. The space weather-related Canadian blackout of 1989 was discussed. Space weather programs were examined, the NSWP in particular. The environmental significance of space weather was documented. The role of space weather in the decayed orbit of Skylab was considered.

Centaurs, the topic of this chapter, were defined and described. Examples were cited, including Chiron and Pholus. The number of centaurs was estimated, and their origins were speculated upon. The unusually erratic orbit of centaurs was documented. Potentially deleterious consequences of centaurs were identified; planetary impacts and the generation of vast amounts of space debris. It was recognized that centaurs are relatively little-studied astronomical phenomenon and that with experience their erratic orbits can become better understood. Centaurs come in all sizes and many are relatively large. It was estimated that one new centaur is created annually.

Supernovas were described and explained in this chapter. The types and subtypes of supernovas were noted. Supernovas cause a tremendous explosion at the moment they are created. The quantitative significance of supernovas was discussed. Supernovas produce particles and radiation, and create excessive temperatures. Supernovas were exemplified, and the concept of SNRs (supernova remnant) was introduced. It was observed that supernovas cause blast and shock waves, gamma ray fireballs and the vaporization of space objects. The concept of pair-instability supernovas was discussed. Pulsars are created by supernovas, it was suggested.

Superbubbles were defined and explained in this chapter. Examples were given, including Cygnus OB 1, the Aquila supershell, the Monogem Ring, NGC 1929 and Orion-Eridanus. It was documented that superbubbles generate and disseminate radiation. Explosions were also associated with superbubbles. Superbubbles produce both termination shock and secondary shocks. Plasma waves are created by superbubbles, it was demonstrated. The inherently turbulent and chaotic inner nature of superbubbles was documented.

Three main topics were discussed in this chapter. Perturbation is the tendency of larger astronomical bodies to alter the orbits of smaller objects which stray too close to the larger entity. Lost asteroids are a class of asteroids previously tracked but now lost to asteroid trackers. Their present location is unknown. Finally, it was documented that there is an increasing number of NEOs, asteroids and comets.

This chapter described and documented the inherent dangers associated with rocket transportation. It was revealed that rockets are the most hazardous mode of transportation ever invented. The intrinsic fact of rocket risk was acknowledged, and the technological nature of rocket risks explored. Spacesuit safety and efficacy were examined. The rigors of acceleration and deceleration were considered.

The empirical rocket take-off record was examined in this chapter. A total of 31 takeoff problems was documented. Attempted but unsuccessful take-offs by Americans, Soviets, Russians, French, Israelis and South Koreans were documented. Private sector failed take-offs afflicted private firms like Ariannespace, STC, U.S. Aerospace, Armadillo Aerospace, Space-X, Scaled Composites and others. Failed takeoffs in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s were documented.

Space transportation involves three very different, mutually-exclusive types of space activity; take-off, spaceflight travel, and landing. Take-offs were the subject of the last chapter, and spaceflight and landings were discussed in this chapter. Ten incidents and accidents were documented during spaceflight, while seven cases of bad reentry and landing were documented. American, Chinese and Soviet accidents and incidents were documented.

Unlike most chapters, whose content is mutually exclusive to that contained elsewhere in the same book, there was intentional redundancy between some of the material in this chapter and previous chapters. The reason is that both satellites and space debris (each the subject of a previous chapter), were deemed individual and independent risks to those residing on the Earth and spacefarers. But for the purposes of the present chapter, both are also important factors in space saturation. In this chapter space saturation was defined and exemplified. We learned about the linear nature of space saturation. The constant reality of cosmic collisions was explained, exemplified and quantified. Collisions involving space satellites, asteroids, comets, planets, centaurs, galaxies and other space bodies were described. The past, present and future incidence of collisions was estimated.

Sleep issues in space were the subject of this chapter. Circadian rhythms were described and discussed, and their importance to sleep in space explained. Related topics chronobiology and body clocks were similarly also covered. The contemporary space sleeping accommodations were explored, and the fact that spacefarers sleep in shifts was noted. Astronauts are supposed to get eight hours of sleep nightly, but the mean average is probably closer to 6.5 hours. The task and behavioral consequences of sleep deprivation were discussed, and the fact that astronauts frequently suffer insomnia was documented. Solutions to sleep deprivation were assessed, and the Mission Control wake-up call documented.

Bones in space were the subject of this chapter. Related concepts osteoporosis and disuse osteoporosis were reviewed. The precise degradation suffered by the skeleton in space was variously referred to as bone loss, bone strength, bone density loss, bone decay and bone demineralization. It was noted that the rate of bone degradation has been underestimated. A half-dozen potential causes of space bone problems were considered. Related deficiencies in magnesium, proteins and Vitamin D were noted. Resorption exceeds new bone formation in space. Space-induced bone problems do not necessarily improve upon return to the Earth. Solutions to spacecaused bone problems were discussed.

Vision problems and eye damage in space were the topic of this chapter. The fact that microgravity causes vision loss was documented, with a trio of specific eye maladies discussed. A half-dozen possible causes of space-related vision loss were analyzed. The similarity of space vision issues to a pair of terrestrial maladies was recognized. The magnitude of the space vision degradation problem was quantified, and the question of whether or not this damage is permanent was addressed. It was documented that many spacefarer vision problems occur after astronauts return to Earth. A one-month threshold for space-induced eye issues was documented. NASA interest in this issue was discussed as were NASA policy acts regarding vision degradation. Studies on vision changes in microgravity were considered.

The mental health aspects of space travel were considered in this chapter. Space psychology was defined and explained. Mental health issues such as isolation, loneliness, confinement, sensory deprivation, close quarters, and separation from family were discussed. Causes of mental health issues included the stressful nature of space, the operational mission environment, psychosocial factors, interpersonal and intercultural issues, and any CNS stimuli. Consequences of space travel include asthenia and crew performance problems. The significance of space-related mental health problems was documented. Solutions to space-induced mental health problems were considered.

This chapter dealt with the three aspects of the cardiovascular system; the heart, veins and arteries, and blood. The negative consequences of microgravity upon the heart were documented, including arrhythmia, cardiac deconditioning, hypertension, cardiac atrophy, diminished cardiac functioning, and impaired orthostatic response. A few solutions to space-induced cardiac conditions were discussed. The vascular system is also negatively impacted by the space environment, it was documented. Damage to the endothelium was described as was the damage to blood vessels from microgravity. It was documented that radiation damages both cerebral arteries and the heart itself. Microgravity reduces blood plasma levels, along with blood levels, red blood cell volume, and the health of white blood cells, it was suggested. Microgravity promotes the viscosity of blood. It was documented that the effects of the space environment on human blood closely parallel those produced by aging.

The brain, neurological and vestibular systems were the subject of this chapter. Pressure on the brain and astronaut headaches were documented, along with difficulty in making estimates and judgment. Cognitive impairment was correlated to the space environment, and Alzheimer’s Disease-like symptoms were noted. A brain/mental health monitor was described. Space-induced neurological disorders were discussed and neurodegeneration and neurological consequences of the space environment were considered. The effect on balance and orientation of the space environment was documented. The vestibular system was discussed and astronaut disorientation was documented. The consequences of the space environment on the vestibular system were discussed.

This chapter dealt with one concept that is known by three different names— motion sickness, space sickness and space adaptation syndrome. All three terms refer to the same basic phenomenon, the gastrointestinal distress encountered in the space environment. Motion sickness is a relatively common happening, it was demonstrated, and it has been studied by the FAA. Solutions to motion sickness were discussed. Space sickness was defined and quantified. Individual variables in space sickness were considered, and ways to minimize space sickness were discussed. Space adaptation syndrome (SAS) was defined and the symptoms discussed. The short-term nature of the malady was documented and the incidence of the syndrome was quantified. It was noted that SAS is unpredictable and variables were examined. The cause of SAS was considered and the similarity to altitude sickness noted. A variety of solutions to SAS were discussed.

This chapter dealt with two separate systems in the human body, the digestive and the immune systems. Digestive problems related to the space environment were documented, and the existence of astronaut abdominal pain was discussed. Spacefarer electrolyte imbalances were mentioned and dehydration considered. The spacefarer diet was criticized and spacefarer nutritional inadequacy documented. The effect of the space environment on appetite was discussed. Space-induced degradation of the senses of taste and smell was explained. Eating and drinking in space was considered. The immune system was described and the effect of the space environment on immunology was discussed. Space causes altered immune systems and depressed immune systems. It was shown that the immune system does not adapt to the space environment, and that radiation degrades the immune system. The immune system has not been adequately studied, and spacefarers have been prone to infection. The negative effects of space on pharmaceuticals were considered.

The effect of the space environment on muscles was analyzed in this chapter. It was documented that a variety of muscle problems can result from space travel, including loss of contractile protein and connective tissue damage. Other harmful effects of space on muscles includes changes in muscle type, muscular twitching, muscle damage, tissue shrinkage, and reduced muscle volume. A number of causes of muscle problems in outer space were considered along with a few proposed solutions. The fact that spacefarers face muscle-related problems upon returning to the Earth was noted.

Microbes, like bacteria and microorganisms, are very small but potentially very powerful. Microbes from the Earth are altered in the space environment and become much more virulent and dangerous. It is possible for space destinations of humans to be contaminated by microbes from the Earth, just as humans may bring space microbes back to the Earth. Microbes change rapidly, and the cause of the changes remains unknown. Clean rooms are thought to be the answer to combating microbes but in fact that are not always entirely clean, and microbes are very adept at escaping detection and destruction. Earth-based simulations of microgravity conditions were shown to be suboptimal, and instead studies on worms in space are preferred. Research on space microbes is expected to have terrestrial applications such as enhanced hospital infection prevention. Solutions to the problem of microbes in space were suggested.

Cancer is the topic of this chapter. Radiation causes cancer. In particular, cosmic radiation, gamma rays, muons and x-rays are carcinogenic. The link between colon cancer and space-based radiation was discussed. A number of specific causal mechanisms were considered, including free radicals, HZE nuclei, and lack of antioxidants. Claims that the outer space environment is characterized by high levels of radiation were discussed, along with the contrary perspective. It was claimed that radiation is the biggest risk to spacefarers. It was documented that space radiation is particularly carcinogenic. The radiation implications of the Mars Mission were discussed. The efficacy and desirability of Earth-based vs spacebased research was examined. Solutions to space-induced cancer were analyzed, including shielding, antioxidants and prevention.

The purpose of this chapter was to attempt to quantify as closely as possible the risk posed to spacefarers and to the planet Earth by space dangers. The empirical record of space objects striking the Earth was examined, specifically with respect to NEOs, asteroids, meteors and comets. Potential threats from supernovas, black holes, space debris and gamma rays were also quantified. An overall aggregate risk assessment was provided.

This concluding chapter summarizes the entire work and points to some conclusions. The three main units of the book, (intrinsic space dangers, rocket risks and the health consequences of space) were discussed in general terms and summarized. Then a series of main conclusions was provided. The chapter ended with a few caveats and reservations about research methodology.