Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1568-0266
ISSN (Online): 1873-4294

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Current Frontiers

The Interrelation between Oxidative Stress, Depression and Inflammation through the Kynurenine Pathway

Author(s): Hande Sipahi*, Ayse Feruze Mat, Yagmur Ozhan and Ahmet Aydin

Volume 23, Issue 6, 2023

Published on: 27 January, 2023

Page: [415 - 425] Pages: 11

DOI: 10.2174/1568026623666221223111309

Price: $65

Abstract

The prevalence of depression has increased dramatically over the past few decades. Although depression is categorized as a brain disorder, its symptomatology includes some behaviors that also occur during chronic inflammatory stress. According to research, cytokine production and immune system activation may have a role in depression, so this relationship has received much attention. Moreover, there is a bidirectional relationship between oxidative stress and inflammation. Oxidative stress plays a pathogenic role in chronic inflammatory diseases; depressive disorder is being suggested as one of them. Recent research using several oxidative stress indicators demonstrates that antioxidant defenses are diminished and oxidative stress is elevated in depression. Another cytokine- related mechanism widely known for its association with inflammatory illnesses is the kynurenine pathway (KP). KP is responsible for maintaining the balance between neuroprotective and neurogenerative processes in the brain. Therefore, KP plays a role in the pathophysiology of depression. It is thought to impact neurological processes that stem the depression, making it one of the mainstays in explaining oxidative stress-depression-inflammation interrelation. The mechanism is thought to be driven by increasing the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, IDO, and thus the KYN/TRP ratio. This review aims to evaluate the relationship between oxidative stress, depression, and inflammation through the kynurenine pathway through the current studies in the literature.

Keywords: Depression, Oxidative stress, Inflammation, Pro-inflammatory cytokines, Kynurenine pathway, KYN/TRP ratio, Obesity, Anti-inflammatory agents.

Next »
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Sipahi, H.; Kadıoğlu, B.; Bayram, F.E.Ö. Discovery of new medication for the treatment of depression comorbid with inflammatory diseases. Curr. Top. Med. Chem., 2018, 18(16), 1393-1394.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/156802661816181107142751] [PMID: 30497355]
[2]
Kanter, J.W.; Busch, A.M.; Weeks, C.E.; Landes, S.J. The nature of clinical depression: Symptoms, syndromes, and behavior analysis. Behav. Anal., 2008, 31(1), 1-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF03392158] [PMID: 22478499]
[3]
American Psychiatric Association. Depression, 2019.
[4]
World Health Organization Depression and other common mental disorders: global health estimates., 2017.
[5]
Angst, J.; Gamma, A.; Gastpar, M.; Lépine, J.P.; Mendlewicz, J.; Tylee, A. Gender differences in depression. Epidemiological findings from the European DEPRES I and II studies. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 2002, 252(5), 201-209.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00406-002-0381-6] [PMID: 12451460]
[6]
Ford, D.E.; Erlinger, T.P. Depression and C-reactive protein in US Adults. Arch. Intern. Med., 2004, 164(9), 1010-1014.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.164.9.1010] [PMID: 15136311]
[7]
Tracy, M.; Morgenstern, H.; Zivin, K.; Aiello, A.E.; Galea, S. Traumatic event exposure and depression severity over time: results from a prospective cohort study in an urban area. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol., 2014, 49(11), 1769-1782.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00127-014-0884-2] [PMID: 24816599]
[8]
Halbreich, U.; Endicott, J. Possible involvement of endorphin withdrawal or imbalance in specific premenstrual syndromes and postpartum depression. Med. Hypotheses, 1981, 7(8), 1045-1058.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0306-9877(81)90100-6] [PMID: 7026993]
[9]
Deykin, E.Y.; Levy, J.C.; Wells, V. Adolescent depression, alcohol and drug abuse. Am. J. Public Health, 1987, 77(2), 178-182.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.77.2.178] [PMID: 3492151]
[10]
Hettema, J.M. Genetics of depression. Focus Am. Psychiatr. Publ., 2010, 8(3), 316-322.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/foc.8.3.foc316]
[11]
Huezo-Diaz, P.; Tandon, K.; Aitchison, K.J. The genetics of depression and related traits. Curr. Psychiatry Rep., 2005, 7(2), 117-124.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11920-005-0008-5] [PMID: 15802088]
[12]
Han, Q.Q. Yu, J. Inflammation: a mechanism of depression? Neurosci. Bull., 2014, 30(3), 515-523.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12264-013-1439-3] [PMID: 24838302]
[13]
Sies, H. Oxidative stress: oxidants and antioxidants. Exp. Physiol., 1997, 82(2), 291-295.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/expphysiol.1997.sp004024] [PMID: 9129943]
[14]
Maria Michel, T.; Pülschen, D.; Thome, J. The role of oxidative stress in depressive disorders. Curr. Pharm. Des., 2012, 18(36), 5890-5899.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138161212803523554] [PMID: 22681168]
[15]
Liou, G.Y.; Storz, P. Reactive oxygen species in cancer. Free Radic. Res., 2010, 44(5), 479-496.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10715761003667554] [PMID: 20370557]
[16]
Ghosh, N.; Das, A.; Chaffee, S.; Roy, S.; Sen, C.K. Reactive oxygen species, oxidative damage and cell death.In: Immunity and inflammation in health and disease; Academic Press: Cambridge, 2018, pp. 45-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805417-8.00004-4]
[17]
Rawdin, B.J.; Mellon, S.H.; Dhabhar, F.S.; Epel, E.S.; Puterman, E.; Su, Y.; Burke, H.M.; Reus, V.I.; Rosser, R.; Hamilton, S.P.; Nelson, J.C.; Wolkowitz, O.M. Dysregulated relationship of inflammation and oxidative stress in major depression. Brain Behav. Immun., 2013, 31, 143-152.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2012.11.011] [PMID: 23201587]
[18]
Fischer, R.; Maier, O. Interrelation of oxidative stress and inflammation in neurodegenerative disease: role of TNF. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev., 2015, 2015, 610813.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/610813] [PMID: 25834699]
[19]
Bouayed, J.; Rammal, H.; Soulimani, R. Oxidative stress and anxiety: relationship and cellular pathways. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev., 2009, 2(2), 63-67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/oxim.2.2.7944] [PMID: 20357926]
[20]
Hussain, T.; Tan, B.; Yin, Y.; Blachier, F.; Tossou, M.C.B.; Rahu, N. Oxidative stress and inflammation: what polyphenols can do for us? Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev., 2016, 2016, 7432797.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/7432797] [PMID: 27738491]
[21]
Black, C.N.; Bot, M.; Scheffer, P.G.; Cuijpers, P.; Penninx, B.W.J.H. Is depression associated with increased oxidative stress? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2015, 51, 164-175.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.09.025] [PMID: 25462890]
[22]
Che, Y.; Wang, J.F.; Shao, L.; Young, L.T. Oxidative damage to RNA but not DNA in the hippocampus of patients with major mental illness. J. Psychiatry Neurosci., 2010, 35(5), 296-302.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1503/jpn.090083] [PMID: 20569644]
[23]
Liu, T.; Zhong, S.; Liao, X.; Chen, J.; He, T.; Lai, S.; Jia, Y. A meta-analysis of oxidative stress markers in depression. PLoS One, 2015, 10(10), e0138904.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138904] [PMID: 26445247]
[24]
Murr, C.; Winklhofer-Roob, B.M.; Schroecksnadel, K.; Maritschnegg, M.; Mangge, H.; Böhm, B.O.; Winkelmann, B.R.; März, W.; Fuchs, D. Inverse association between serum concentrations of neopterin and antioxidants in patients with and without angiographic coronary artery disease. Atherosclerosis, 2009, 202(2), 543-549.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2008.04.047] [PMID: 18556000]
[25]
Anderson, E.J.; Thayne, K.A.; Harris, M.; Shaikh, S.R.; Darden, T.M.; Lark, D.S.; Williams, J.M.; Chitwood, W.R.; Kypson, A.P.; Rodriguez, E. Do fish oil omega-3 fatty acids enhance antioxidant capacity and mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation in human atrial myocardium via PPARγ activation? Antioxid. Redox Signal., 2014, 21(8), 1156-1163.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/ars.2014.5888] [PMID: 24597798]
[26]
Aruoma, O.I.; Halliwell, B.; Hoey, B.M.; Butler, J. The antioxidant action of N-acetylcysteine: Its reaction with hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical, superoxide, and hypochlorous acid. Free Radic. Biol. Med., 1989, 6(6), 593-597.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0891-5849(89)90066-X] [PMID: 2546864]
[27]
Smaga, I.; Niedzielska, E.; Gawlik, M.; Moniczewski, A.; Krzek, J.; Przegaliński, E.; Pera, J.; Filip, M. Oxidative stress as an etiological factor and a potential treatment target of psychiatric disorders. Part 2. Depression, anxiety, schizophrenia and autism. Pharmacol. Rep., 2015, 67(3), 569-580.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pharep.2014.12.015] [PMID: 25933971]
[28]
Jazayeri, S.; Tehrani-Doost, M.; Keshavarz, S.A.; Hosseini, M.; Djazayery, A.; Amini, H.; Jalali, M.; Peet, M. Comparison of therapeutic effects of omega-3 fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid and fluoxetine, separately and in combination, in major depressive disorder. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry, 2008, 42(3), 192-198.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00048670701827275] [PMID: 18247193]
[29]
Evans, P.J.; Whiteman, M.; Tredger, J.M.; Halliwell, B. Antioxidant properties of S-adenosyl-L-methionine: a proposed addition to organ storage fluids. Free Radic. Biol. Med., 1997, 23(7), 1002-1008.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0891-5849(97)00124-X] [PMID: 9358243]
[30]
Howland, R.H. Dietary supplement drug therapies for depression. J. Psychosoc. Nurs. Ment. Health Serv., 2012, 50(6), 13-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20120508-06]] [PMID: 22589230]
[31]
Reuter, S.; Gupta, S.C.; Chaturvedi, M.M.; Aggarwal, B.B. Oxidative stress, inflammation, and cancer: How are they linked? Free Radic. Biol. Med., 2010, 49(11), 1603-1616.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2010.09.006]] [PMID: 20840865]
[32]
Khansari, N.; Shakiba, Y.; Mahmoudi, M. Chronic inflammation and oxidative stress as a major cause of age-related diseases and cancer. Recent Pat. Inflamm. Allergy Drug Discov., 2009, 3(1), 73-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/187221309787158371] [PMID: 19149749]
[33]
Ozsurekci, Y.; Aykac, K. Oxidative stress related diseases in newborns. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev., 2016, 2016, 2768365.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/2768365] [PMID: 27403229]
[34]
Toyokuni, S.; Okamoto, K.; Yodoi, J.; Hiai, H. Persistent oxidative stress in cancer. FEBS Lett., 1995, 358(1), 1-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-5793(94)01368-B] [PMID: 7821417]
[35]
Sinha, A.A.; Lopez, M.T.; McDevitt, H.O. Autoimmune diseases: the failure of self tolerance. Science, 1990, 248(4961), 1380-1388.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1972595] [PMID: 1972595]
[36]
Sewitch, M.J.; Abrahamowicz, M.; Bitton, A.; Daly, D.; Wild, G.E.; Cohen, A.; Katz, S.; Szego, P.L.; Dobkin, P.L. Psychological distress, social support, and disease activity in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 2001, 96(5), 1470-1479.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1572-0241.2001.03800.x] [PMID: 11374685]
[37]
Nemati, S.; Teimourian, S. An overview of inflammatory bowel disease: general consideration and genetic screening approach in diagnosis of early onset subsets. Middle East J. Dig. Dis., 2017, 9(2), 69-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15171/mejdd.2017.54] [PMID: 28638582]
[38]
Graff, L.A.; Walker, J.R.; Bernstein, C.N. Depression and anxiety in inflammatory bowel disease: A review of comorbidity and management. Inflamm. Bowel Dis., 2009, 15(7), 1105-1118.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ibd.20873] [PMID: 19161177]
[39]
Wei, L.; Li, Y.; Tang, W.; Sun, Q.; Chen, L.; Wang, X.; Liu, Q.; Yu, S.; Yu, S.; Liu, C.; Ma, X. Chronic unpredictable mild stress in rats induces colonic inflammation. Front. Physiol., 2019, 10, 1228.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.01228] [PMID: 31616319]
[40]
Heidari, B. Rheumatoid arthritis: Early diagnosis and treatment outcomes. Caspian J. Intern. Med., 2011, 2(1), 161-170.
[PMID: 24024009]
[41]
Combe, B. Progression in early rheumatoid arthritis. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Rheumatol., 2009, 23(1), 59-69.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.berh.2008.11.006] [PMID: 19233046]
[42]
Ang, D. Comorbid depression is an independent risk factor for mortality in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Inflamm. Bowel Dis., 2009, 15(7), 1105-1118.
[PMID: 19161177]
[43]
Pincus, T.; Griffith, J.; Pearce, S.; Isenberg, D. Prevalence of self-reported depression in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford), 1996, 35(9), 879-883.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/35.9.879] [PMID: 8810672]
[44]
Nerurkar, L.; Siebert, S.; McInnes, I.B.; Cavanagh, J. Rheumatoid arthritis and depression: an inflammatory perspective. Lancet Psychiatry, 2019, 6(2), 164-173.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30255-4]] [PMID: 30366684]
[45]
Chen, L.; Deng, H.; Cui, H.; Fang, J.; Zuo, Z.; Deng, J.; Li, Y.; Wang, X.; Zhao, L. Inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases in organs. Oncotarget, 2018, 9(6), 7204-7218.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.23208] [PMID: 29467962]
[46]
Kaminska, B. MAPK signalling pathways as molecular targets for anti-inflammatory therapy-from molecular mechanisms to therapeutic benefits. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. Proteins Proteomics, 2005, 1754(1-2), 253-262.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbapap.2005.08.017] [PMID: 16198162]
[47]
Zhang, J.M.; An, J. Cytokines, inflammation, and pain Int. Anesthesiol. Clin., 2007, 45(2), 27-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AIA.0b013e318034194e]] [PMID: 17426506]
[48]
Foster, J.R. The functions of cytokines and their uses in toxicology. Int. J. Exp. Pathol., 2001, 82(3), 171-192.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2613.2001.iep192.x]] [PMID: 11488991]
[49]
Capuron, L.; Schroecksnadel, S.; Féart, C.; Aubert, A.; Higueret, D.; Barberger-Gateau, P.; Layé, S.; Fuchs, D. Chronic low-grade inflammation in elderly persons is associated with altered tryptophan and tyrosine metabolism: role in neuropsychiatric symptoms. Biol. Psychiatry, 2011, 70(2), 175-182.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.12.006] [PMID: 21277567]
[50]
Felger, J.C.; Lotrich, F.E. Inflammatory cytokines in depression: Neurobiological mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Neuroscience 2013, 246, 199-229.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.04.060] [PMID: 23644052]
[51]
Levine, J.; Barak, Y.; Chengappa, K.N.R.; Rapoport, A.; Rebey, M.; Barak, V. Cerebrospinal cytokine levels in patients with acute depression. Neuropsychobiology, 1999, 40(4), 171-176.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000026615] [PMID: 10559698]
[52]
Schmidt, F.M.; Lichtblau, N.; Minkwitz, J.; Chittka, T.; Thormann, J.; Kirkby, K.C.; Sander, C.; Mergl, R.; Faßhauer, M.; Stumvoll, M.; Holdt, L.M.; Teupser, D.; Hegerl, U.; Himmerich, H. Cytokine levels in depressed and non-depressed subjects, and masking effects of obesity. J. Psychiatr. Res., 2014, 55, 29-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.04.021] [PMID: 24838047]
[53]
Banks, W.A.; Kastin, A.J.; Broadwell, R.D. Passage of cytokines across the blood-brain barrier. Neuroimmunomodulation, 1995, 2(4), 241-248.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000097202] [PMID: 8963753]
[54]
Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K.; Derry, H.M.; Fagundes, C.P. Inflammation: depression fans the flames and feasts on the heat. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2015, 172(11), 1075-1091.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15020152] [PMID: 26357876]
[55]
Miller, A.H.; Raison, C.L. The role of inflammation in depression: from evolutionary imperative to modern treatment target. Nat. Rev. Immunol., 2016, 16(1), 22-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nri.2015.5] [PMID: 26711676]
[56]
Meyers, C.A. Mood and cognitive disorders in cancer patients receiving cytokine therapy; Cytokines, Stress, and Depression, 1999, pp. 75-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-585-37970-8_5]
[57]
Lindqvist, D.; Janelidze, S.; Hagell, P.; Erhardt, S.; Samuelsson, M.; Minthon, L.; Hansson, O.; Björkqvist, M.; Träskman-Bendz, L.; Brundin, L. Interleukin-6 is elevated in the cerebrospinal fluid of suicide attempters and related to symptom severity. Biol. Psychiatry, 2009, 66(3), 287-292.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.01.030] [PMID: 19268915]
[58]
Yirmiya, R.; Pollak, Y.; Morag, M.; Reichenberg, A.; Barak, O.; Avitsur, R.; Shavit, Y.; Ovadia, H.; Weidenfeld, J.; Morag, A.; Newman, M.E.; Pollmächer, T. Illness, cytokines, and depression. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 2000, 917(1), 478-487.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb05412.x] [PMID: 11268375]
[59]
Savitz, J. The kynurenine pathway: a finger in every pie. Mol. Psychiatry, 2019.
[PMID: 30980044]
[60]
Widner, B.; Laich, A.; Sperner-Unterweger, B.; Ledochowski, M.; Fuchs, D. Neopterin production, tryptophan degradation, and mental depression-What is the link? Brain Behav. Immun., 2002, 16(5), 590-595.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0889-1591(02)00006-5] [PMID: 12401473]
[61]
Song, P.; Ramprasath, T.; Wang, H.; Zou, M.H. Abnormal kynurenine pathway of tryptophan catabolism in cardiovascular diseases. Cell. Mol. Life Sci., 2017, 74(16), 2899-2916.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00018-017-2504-2] [PMID: 28314892]
[62]
Davis, I.; Liu, A. What is the tryptophan kynurenine pathway and why is it important to neurotherapeutics? Expert Rev. Neurother., 2015, 15(7), 719-721.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/14737175.2015.1049999] [PMID: 26004930]
[63]
Brown, S.J.; Huang, X.F.; Newell, K.A. The kynurenine pathway in major depression: What we know and where to next. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 2021, 127, 917-927.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.05.018]] [PMID: 34029552]
[64]
Ogyu, K.; Kubo, K.; Noda, Y.; Iwata, Y.; Tsugawa, S.; Omura, Y.; Wada, M.; Tarumi, R.; Plitman, E.; Moriguchi, S.; Miyazaki, T.; Uchida, H.; Graff-Guerrero, A.; Mimura, M.; Nakajima, S. Kynurenine pathway in depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 2018, 90, 16-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.03.023] [PMID: 29608993]
[65]
Majláth, Z.; Török, N.; Toldi, J.; Vécsei, L. Memantine and kynurenic acid: Current neuropharmacological aspects. Curr. Neuropharmacol., 2016, 14(2), 200-209.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1570159X14666151113123221] [PMID: 26564141]
[66]
Oxenkrug, G.F. Tryptophan kynurenine metabolism as a common mediator of genetic and environmental impacts in major depressive disorder: the serotonin hypothesis revisited 40 years later. Isr. J. Psychiatry Relat. Sci., 2010, 47(1), 56-63.
[PMID: 20686200]
[67]
Kita, T.; Morrison, P.F.; Heyes, M.P.; Markey, S.P. Effects of systemic and central nervous system localized inflammation on the contributions of metabolic precursors to the l-kynurenine and quinolinic acid pools in brain. J. Neurochem., 2002, 82(2), 258-268.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1471-4159.2002.00955.x] [PMID: 12124427]
[68]
Campbell, B.M.; Charych, E.; Lee, A.W.; Möller, T. Kynurenines in CNS disease: regulation by inflammatory cytokines. Front. Neurosci., 2014, 8, 12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2014.00012] [PMID: 24567701]
[69]
Hestad, K.A.; Engedal, K.; Whist, J.E.; Farup, P.G. The relationships among tryptophan, kynurenine, indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase, depression, and neuropsychological performance. Front. Psychol., 2017, 8, 1561.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01561] [PMID: 29046648]
[70]
Widner, B.; Leblhuber, F.; Fuchs, D. Increased neopterin production and tryptophan degradation in advanced Parkinson’s disease. J. Neural Transm. (Vienna), 2002, 109(2), 181-189.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s007020200014] [PMID: 12075858]
[71]
Réus, G.Z.; Jansen, K.; Titus, S.; Carvalho, A.F.; Gabbay, V.; Quevedo, J. Kynurenine pathway dysfunction in the pathophysiology and treatment of depression: Evidences from animal and human studies. J. Psychiatr. Res., 2015, 68, 316-328.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.05.007] [PMID: 26028548]
[72]
Pérez-De La Cruz, V.; Carrillo-Mora, P.; Santamaría, A. Quinolinic Acid, an endogenous molecule combining excitotoxicity, oxidative stress and other toxic mechanisms. Int. J. Tryptophan Res., 2012, 5, 1-8.
[PMID: 22408367]
[73]
Stone, T.W.; Addae, J.I. The pharmacological manipulation of glutamate receptors and neuroprotection. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 2002, 447(2-3), 285-296.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2999(02)01851-4] [PMID: 12151020]
[74]
Tutakhail, A.; Boulet, L.; Khabil, S.; Nazari, Q.A.; Hamid, H.; Coudoré, F. neuropathology of kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism. Curr. Pharmacol. Rep., 2020, 6(1), 8-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40495-019-00208-2]
[75]
Catena-Dell’Osso, M.; Bellantuono, C.; Consoli, G.; Baroni, S.; Rotella, F.; Marazziti, D. Inflammatory and neurodegenerative pathways in depression: a new avenue for antidepressant development? Curr. Med. Chem., 2011, 18(2), 245-255.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/092986711794088353] [PMID: 21110802]
[76]
Ofei, F. Obesity - a preventable disease. Ghana Med. J., 2005, 39(3), 98-101.
[PMID: 17299552]
[77]
Sideleva, O.; Suratt, B.T.; Black, K.E.; Tharp, W.G.; Pratley, R.E.; Forgione, P.; Dienz, O.; Irvin, C.G.; Dixon, A.E. Obesity and Asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 2012, 186(7), 598-605.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201203-0573OC] [PMID: 22837379]
[78]
Kanneganti, T.D.; Dixit, V.D. Immunological complications of obesity. Nat. Immunol., 2012, 13(8), 707-712.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ni.2343] [PMID: 22814340]
[79]
Luppino, F.S.; de Wit, L.M.; Bouvy, P.F.; Stijnen, T.; Cuijpers, P.; Penninx, B.W.J.H.; Zitman, F.G. Overweight, obesity, and depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 2010, 67(3), 220-229.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.2] [PMID: 20194822]
[80]
Pratt, L.A.; Brody, D.J. Depression and obesity in the U.S. adult household population, 2005-2010. NCHS Data Brief, 2014, 1(167), 1-8.
[PMID: 25321386]
[81]
Shelton, R.C.; Miller, A.H. Eating ourselves to death (and despair): The contribution of adiposity and inflammation to depression. Prog. Neurobiol., 2010, 91(4), 275-299.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2010.04.004] [PMID: 20417247]
[82]
Cancello, R.; Clément, K. Review article: Is obesity an inflammatory illness? Role of low-grade inflammation and macrophage infiltration in human white adipose tissue. BJOG 2006, 113(10), 1141-1147.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.2006.01004.x] [PMID: 16903845]
[83]
Fernández-Sánchez, A.; Madrigal-Santillán, E.; Bautista, M.; Esquivel-Soto, J.; Morales-González, Á.; Esquivel-Chirino, C.; Durante-Montiel, I.; Sánchez-Rivera, G.; Valadez-Vega, C.; Morales-González, J.A. Inflammation, oxidative stress, and obesity. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 2011, 12(5), 3117-3132.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms12053117] [PMID: 21686173]
[84]
Mangge, H.; Almer, G.; Bauer-Denk, C.; Truschnig-Wilders, M.; Schmidt, A.; Gasser, R.; Pieske, B.; Fuchs, D. Adiponectin, inflammation, obesity and cardiovascular risk. Curr. Med. Chem., 2010, 17, 4511-4520.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/092986710794183006] [PMID: 21062254]
[85]
Huang, C.J.; McAllister, M.J.; Slusher, A.L.; Webb, H.E.; Mock, J.T.; Acevedo, E.O. Obesity-related oxidative stress: The impact of physical activity and diet manipulation. Sports Med. Open, 2015, 1(1), 32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40798-015-0031-y] [PMID: 26435910]
[86]
Iikuni, N.; Kwan Lam, Q.; Lu, L.; Matarese, G.; Cava, A. Leptin and inflammation. Curr. Immunol. Rev., 2008, 4(2), 70-79.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/157339508784325046] [PMID: 20198122]
[87]
Ahima, R.S.; Flier, J.S. Leptin. Annu. Rev. Physiol., 2000, 62(1), 413-437.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.62.1.413] [PMID: 10845097]
[88]
La Cava, A.; Alviggi, C.; Matarese, G. Unraveling the multiple roles of leptin in inflammation and autoimmunity. J. Mol. Med. (Berl.), 2004, 82(1), 4-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00109-003-0492-1] [PMID: 14556053]
[89]
Ellulu, M.S.; Patimah, I.; Khaza’ai, H.; Rahmat, A.; Abed, Y. Obesity and inflammation: the linking mechanism and the complications. Arch. Med. Sci., 2017, 4(4), 851-863.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5114/aoms.2016.58928] [PMID: 28721154]
[90]
Pang, C.; Gao, Z.; Yin, J.; Zhang, J.; Jia, W.; Ye, J. Macrophage infiltration into adipose tissue may promote angiogenesis for adipose tissue remodeling in obesity. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab., 2008, 295(2), E313-E322.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.90296.2008] [PMID: 18492768]
[91]
Lago, F.; Dieguez, C.; Gómez-Reino, J.; Gualillo, O. The emerging role of adipokines as mediators of inflammation and immune responses. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev., 2007, 18(3-4), 313-325.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cytogfr.2007.04.007] [PMID: 17507280]
[92]
Delgado, I.; Huet, L.; Dexpert, S.; Beau, C.; Forestier, D.; Ledaguenel, P.; Aubert, A.; Sauvant, J.; Aouizerate, B.; Magne, E.; Capuron, L. Depressive symptoms in obesity: Relative contribution of low-grade inflammation and metabolic health. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2018, 91, 55-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.02.030] [PMID: 29525586]
[93]
Savini, I.; Gasperi, V.; Catani, M.V. Oxidative stress and obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring), 2016, 65-86.
[94]
Ledochowski, M.; Murr, C.; Widner, B.; Fuchs, D. Association between insulin resistance, body mass and neopterin concentrations. Clin. Chim. Acta, 1999, 282(1-2), 115-123.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0009-8981(99)00019-4] [PMID: 10340439]
[95]
Illán-Gómez, F.; Gonzálvez-Ortega, M.; Orea-Soler, I.; Alcaraz-Tafalla, M.S.; Aragón-Alonso, A.; Pascual-Díaz, M.; Pérez-Paredes, M.; Lozano-Almela, M.L. (2012). Obesity and inflammation: change in adiponectin, C-reactive protein, tumour necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 after bariatric surgery. Obesity Surgery, 22(6), 950-955.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11695-012-0643-y]
[96]
Cong, X.; Tracy, M.; Edmunds, L.S.; Hosler, A.S.; Appleton, A.A. The relationship between inflammatory dietary pattern in childhood and depression in early adulthood. Brain Behav. Immun.-. Health, 2020, 2, 100017.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbih.2019.100017]
[97]
Hryhorczuk, C.; Sharma, S.; Fulton, S.E. Metabolic disturbances connecting obesity and depression. Front. Neurosci., 2013, 7, 177.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2013.00177] [PMID: 24109426]
[98]
Schachter, J.; Martel, J.; Lin, C.S.; Chang, C.J.; Wu, T.R.; Lu, C.C.; Ko, Y.F.; Lai, H.C.; Ojcius, D.M.; Young, J.D. Effects of obesity on depression: A role for inflammation and the gut microbiota. Brain Behav. Immun., 2018, 69, 1-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2017.08.026] [PMID: 28888668]
[99]
López-Muñoz, F.; Alamo, C. Monoaminergic neurotransmission: the history of the discovery of antidepressants from 1950s until today. Curr. Pharm. Des., 2009, 15(14), 1563-1586.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138161209788168001] [PMID: 19442174]
[100]
Hillhouse, T.M.; Porter, J.H. A brief history of the development of antidepressant drugs: From monoamines to glutamate. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2015, 23(1), 1-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0038550] [PMID: 25643025]
[101]
Werner, E.R.; Werner-Felmayer, G.; Fuchs, D.; Hausen, A.; Reibnegger, G.; Wachter, H. Parallel induction of tetrahydrobiopterin biosynthesis and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity in human cells and cell lines by interferon- γ. Biochem. J., 1989, 262(3), 861-866.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj2620861] [PMID: 2511835]
[102]
Neurauter, G.; Schröcksnadel, K.; Scholl-Bürgi, S.; Sperner-Unterweger, B.; Schubert, C.; Ledochowski, M.; Fuchs, D. Chronic immune stimulation correlates with reduced phenylalanine turnover. Curr. Drug Metab., 2008, 9(7), 622-627.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138920008785821738] [PMID: 18781914]
[103]
Jha, M.; Trivedi, M. Personalized antidepressant selection and pathway to novel treatments: clinical utility of targeting inflammation. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 2018, 19(1), 233.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms19010233] [PMID: 29329256]
[104]
Hiemke, C. Why do antidepressant therapies have such a poor success rate? Expert Rev.Neurother., 2016, 16(6), 597-599.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/14737175.2016.1158647] [PMID: 26914370]
[105]
El-Hage, W.; Leman, S.; Camus, V.; Belzung, C. Mechanisms of antidepressant resistance. Front. Pharmacol., 2013, 4, 146.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2013.00146] [PMID: 24319431]
[106]
Zorumski, C.F.; Paul, S.M.; Covey, D.F.; Mennerick, S. Neurosteroids as novel antidepressants and anxiolytics: GABA-A receptors and beyond. Neurobiol. Stress, 2019, 11, 100196.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2019.100196] [PMID: 31649968]
[107]
Krügel, U.; Fischer, J.; Radicke, S.; Sack, U.; Himmerich, H. Antidepressant effects of TNF-α blockade in an animal model of depression. J. Psychiatr. Res., 2013, 47(5), 611-616.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.01.007] [PMID: 23394815]
[108]
Brunello, N.; Alboni, S.; Capone, G.; Benatti, C.; Blom, J.M.C.; Tascedda, F.; Kriwin, P.; Mendlewicz, J. Acetylsalicylic acid accelerates the antidepressant effect of fluoxetine in the chronic escape deficit model of depression. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2006, 21(4), 219-225.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004850-200607000-00004] [PMID: 16687993]
[109]
Schroecksnadel, K.; Winkler, C.; Wirleitner, B.; Schennach, H.; Fuchs, D. Aspirin down-regulates tryptophan degradation in stimulated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro. Clin. Exp. Immunol., 2005, 140(1), 41-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2249.2005.02746.x] [PMID: 15762873]
[110]
Santiago, R.M.; Barbiero, J.; Martynhak, B.J.; Boschen, S.L.; da Silva, L.M.; Werner, M.F.P.; Da Cunha, C.; Andreatini, R.; Lima, M.M.S.; Vital, M.A.B.F. Antidepressant-like effect of celecoxib piroxicam in rat models of depression. J. Neural Transm. (Vienna), 2014, 121(6), 671-682.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00702-014-1159-5] [PMID: 24463888]
[111]
Abdel-Salam, O.M.E.; Nofal, S.M.; El-Shenawy, S.M. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects of different antidepressants in the rat. Pharmacol. Res., 2003, 48(2), 157-165.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1043-6618(03)00106-3] [PMID: 12798668]
[112]
Bianchi, M.; Panerai, A.E. Antidepressant drugs and experimental inflammation. Pharmacol. Res., 1996, 33(4-5), 235-238.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/phrs.1996.0032] [PMID: 8938014]
[113]
Kubera, M.; Lin, A.H.; Kenis, G.; Bosmans, E.; van Bockstaele, D.; Maes, M. Anti-Inflammatory effects of antidepressants through suppression of the interferon-gamma/interleukin-10 production ratio. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2001, 21(2), 199-206.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004714-200104000-00012] [PMID: 11270917]
[114]
Roumestan, C.; Michel, A.; Bichon, F.; Portet, K.; Detoc, M.; Henriquet, C.; Jaffuel, D.; Mathieu, M. Anti-inflammatory properties of desipramine and fluoxetine. Respir. Res., 2007, 8(1), 35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1465-9921-8-35] [PMID: 17477857]
[115]
Kohler, O.; Krogh, J.; Mors, O.; Eriksen Benros, M. Inflammation in depression and the potential for anti-inflammatory treatment. Curr. Neuropharmacol., 2016, 14(7), 732-742.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1570159X14666151208113700] [PMID: 27640518]
[116]
Anderson, G.; Maes, M. Oxidative/nitrosative stress and immuno-inflammatory pathways in depression: treatment implications. Curr. Pharm. Des., 2014, 20(23), 3812-3847.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/13816128113196660738] [PMID: 24180395]
[117]
Myint, A.M.; Schwarz, M.J.; Müller, N. The role of the kynurenine metabolism in major depression. J. Neural Transm. (Vienna), 2012, 119(2), 245-251.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00702-011-0741-3] [PMID: 22139324]
[118]
Bremmer, M.A.; Beekman, A.T.F.; Deeg, D.J.H.; Penninx, B.W.J.H.; Dik, M.G.; Hack, C.E.; Hoogendijk, W.J.G. Inflammatory markers in late-life depression: Results from a population-based study. J. Affect. Disord., 2008, 106(3), 249-255.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2007.07.002] [PMID: 17716746]
[119]
Penninx, B.W.J.H.; Kritchevsky, S.B.; Yaffe, K.; Newman, A.B.; Simonsick, E.M.; Rubin, S.; Ferrucci, L.; Harris, T.; Pahor, M. Inflammatory markers and depressed mood in older persons: results from the health, aging and body composition study. Biol. Psychiatry, 2003, 54(5), 566-572.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01811-5] [PMID: 12946885]
[120]
Almulla, A.F.; Thipakorn, Y.; Vasupanrajit, A.; Algon, A.A.A.; Tunvirachaisakul, C.; Aljanabi, A.A.H.; Oxenkrug, G.; Al-Hakeim, H.; Maes, M. The tryptophan catabolite or kynurenine pathway in major depressive and bipolar disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain Behav. Immun.-. Health, 2022, 2022, 100537.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbih.2022.100537]
[121]
Miller, G.E.; Stetler, C.A.; Carney, R.M.; Freedland, K.E.; Banks, W.A. Clinical depression and inflammatory risk markers for coronary heart disease. Am. J. Cardiol., 2002, 90(12), 1279-1283.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9149(02)02863-1] [PMID: 12480034]
[122]
Roberts, R.E.; Kaplan, G.A.; Shema, S.J.; Strawbridge, W.J. Are the obese at greater risk for depression? Am. J. Epidemiol., 2000, 152(2), 163-170.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/152.2.163] [PMID: 10909953]
[123]
Carpenter, K.M.; Hasin, D.S.; Allison, D.B.; Faith, M.S. Relationships between obesity and DSM-IV major depressive disorder, suicide ideation, and suicide attempts: results from a general population study. Am. J. Public Health, 2000, 90(2), 251-257.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.90.2.251] [PMID: 10667187]
[124]
de Wit, L.M.; van Straten, A.; van Herten, M.; Penninx, B.W.J.H.; Cuijpers, P. Depression and body mass index, a u-shaped association. BMC Public Health, 2009, 9(1), 14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-9-14] [PMID: 19144098]
[125]
Fava, M. Diagnosis and definition of treatment-resistant depression. Biol. Psychiatry, 2003, 53(8), 649-659.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(03)00231-2] [PMID: 12706951]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
66
2
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy