Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Central Nervous System Agents in Medicinal Chemistry

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1871-5249
ISSN (Online): 1875-6166

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Research Article

Are Patients with Schizophrenia Reliably Reporting their Cannabis Use? An African Cross-sectional Study

Author(s): Ismail Rammouz*, Mohamed Merzouki, Sara Bouri, Aalouane Rachid, Amine Bout and Saïd Boujraf

Volume 22, Issue 3, 2022

Published on: 07 September, 2022

Page: [188 - 197] Pages: 10

DOI: 10.2174/1871524922666220620150033

Price: $65

Abstract

Background: Most studies of the prevalence of cannabis use among patients with schizophrenia used a self-report as declared by the patient himself. We hypothesize that patients with schizophrenia did not tell the truth and might underreport their use for many reasons to be discussed later. Indeed, the under-report of cannabis use among these patients can affect the effectiveness of their treatment.

Aims: To assess the degree of agreement between the prevalence values obtained from patients’ reports and the results of the toxicological tests.

Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out on 403 patients with schizophrenia. A sociodemographic, psychiatric history and illicit drug use profile was performed for each patient. We assessed the patients with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), Calgary Depression score (CDSS), Barratt Impulsiveness Score (BIS-10) and Medication Adherence Rating Scale (MARS). The consumption of cannabis used was confirmed with MINI International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI-DSM IV) and using toxicological analysis.

Results: Among the 403 patients who consented to give their urine samples, 49.1% (198/403) tested positive for cannabis, and 41.41% (82/198) underreported their use. The sensitivity and specificity of the questionnaire were 0.58 and 0.74. Based on the comparison between sociodemographic and psychiatric history data of patients who self-report and underreport their cannabis use, no significant difference was observed except for the duration of cannabis use and the score on the medication adherence scale. Moreover, it was found that impulsivity, PANSS score, CDSS score, and the type of schizophrenia are not involved in predicting the underreporting of cannabis use.

Conclusion: The rate of patients who under-report cannabis use is important. Therefore, toxicological analysis is becoming relevant for identifying drug use among schizophrenic patients and in the addictive comorbidity research field.

Keywords: Cannabis, schizophrenia, toxicological analysis, under-report, prevalence, CDSS.

« Previous Next »
[1]
Rammouz, I.; Bouri, S.; Merzouki, M.; Berraho, M.A.; Aalouane, R.; Boujraf, S. Reliability of self-report of cannabis use among patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res., 2022, 311, 114491.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114491] [PMID: 35306377]
[2]
Di Forti, M.; Morrison, P.D.; Butt, A.; Murray, R.M. Cannabis use and psychiatric and cogitive disorders: The chicken or the egg? Curr. Opin. Psychiatry, 2007, 20(3), 228-234.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e3280fa838e] [PMID: 17415074]
[3]
Iversen, L. Cannabis and the brain. Brain, 2003, 126(Pt 6), 1252-1270.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awg143] [PMID: 12764049]
[4]
Degenhardt, L.; Hall, W. The association between psychosis and problematical drug use among Australian adults: Findings from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. Psychol. Med., 2001, 31(4), 659-668.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291701003865] [PMID: 11352368]
[5]
Menne, V.; Chesworth, R. Schizophrenia and drug addiction comorbidity: Recent advances in our understanding of behavioural susceptibility and neural mechanisms. Neuroanat Behav, 2020, 2(1), e10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.35430/nab.2020.e10]
[6]
Green, A.I. Schizophrenia and comorbid substance use disorder: Effects of antipsychotics. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2005, 66(Suppl. 6), 21-26.
[PMID: 16107180]
[7]
Koskinen, J.; Löhönen, J.; Koponen, H.; Isohanni, M.; Miettunen, J. Rate of cannabis use disorders in clinical samples of patients with schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Schizophr. Bull., 2010, 36(6), 1115-1130.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbp031] [PMID: 19386576]
[8]
Le Bec, P.Y.; Fatséas, M.; Denis, C.; Lavie, E.; Auriacombe, M. Cannabis and psychosis: Search of a causal link through a critical and systematic review. Encephale, 2009, 35(4), 377-385.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.encep.2008.02.012] [PMID: 19748375]
[9]
Degenhardt, L.; Ferrari, A.J.; Calabria, B.; Hall, W.D.; Norman, R.E.; McGrath, J.; Flaxman, A.D.; Engell, R.E.; Freedman, G.D.; Whiteford, H.A.; Vos, T. The global epidemiology and contribution of cannabis use and dependence to the global burden of disease: Results from the GBD 2010 study. PLoS One, 2013, 8(10), e76635. [Erratum in: PLoS One 2016; 11]. [10]. [:e0165221. PMID: 24204649; PMCID: PMC3811989].
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076635] [PMID: 24204649]
[10]
Gage, S.H.; Hickman, M.; Zammit, S. Association between cannabis and psychosis: Epidemiologic evidence. Biol. Psychiatry, 2016, 79(7), 549-556.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.08.001] [PMID: 26386480]
[11]
Green, A.I.; Drake, R.E.; Brunette, M.F.; Noordsy, D.L. Schizophrenia and co-occurring substance use disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2007, 164(3), 402-408.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2007.164.3.402] [PMID: 17329463]
[12]
Hanna, R.C.; Perez, J.M.; Ghose, S. Cannabis and development of dual diagnoses: A literature review. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse, 2017, 43(4), 442-455.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2016.1213273] [PMID: 27612527]
[13]
Hunt, G.E.; Large, M.M.; Cleary, M.; Lai, H.M.X.; Saunders, J.B. Prevalence of comorbid substance use in schizophrenia spectrum disorders in community and clinical settings, 1990-2017: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend., 2018, 191, 234-258.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.07.011] [PMID: 30153606]
[14]
Lowe, D.J.E.; Sasiadek, J.D.; Coles, A.S.; George, T.P. Cannabis and mental illness: A review. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 2019, 269(1), 107-120.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00406-018-0970-7] [PMID: 30564886]
[15]
Stone, A.M.; Greenstein, R.A.; Gamble, G.; McLellan, A.T. Cocaine use by schizophrenic outpatients who receive depot neuroleptic medication. Hosp. Community Psychiatry, 1993, 44(2), 176-177.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ps.44.2.176] [PMID: 8432504]
[16]
Brunette, M.F.; Mueser, K.T.; Xie, H.; Drake, R.E. Relationships between symptoms of schizophrenia and substance abuse. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 1997, 185(1), 13-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005053-199701000-00003] [PMID: 9040528]
[17]
DeLisi, L.E. The effect of cannabis on the brain: Can it cause brain anomalies that lead to increased risk for schizophrenia? Curr. Opin. Psychiatry, 2008, 21(2), 140-150.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e3282f51266] [PMID: 18332661]
[18]
Hall, W.; Degenhardt, L. Cannabis use and psychosis: A review of clinical and epidemiological evidence. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry, 2000, 34(1), 26-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1614.2000.00685.x] [PMID: 11185941]
[19]
Hamilton, I. Cannabis, psychosis and schizophrenia: Unravelling a complex interaction. Addiction, 2017, 112(9), 1653-1657.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/add.13826] [PMID: 28419656]
[20]
Schürhoff, F.; Fond, G.; Berna, F.; Bulzacka, E.; Godin, O.; Boyer, L.; Misdrahi, D.; Andrianarisoa, M.; Brunel, L.; Coulon, N.; Aouizerate, B.; Capdevielle, D.; Chereau, I.; D’Amato, T.; Dubertret, C.; Dubreucq, J.; Faget, C.; Gabayet, F.; Mallet, J.; Rey, R.; Lancon, C.; Passerieux, C.; Schandrin, A.; Urbach, M.; Vidailhet, P.; Leboyer, M.; Llorca, P.M. The 10-year findings from the FondaMental Academic Center of Expertise for Schizophrenia (FACE-SZ): Review and recommendations for clinical practice. Encephale, 2019, 45(1), 9-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.encep.2018.07.007] [PMID: 30327207]
[21]
Ksir, C.; Hart, C.L. Cannabis and Psychosis: A critical overview of the relationship. Curr. Psychiatry Rep., 2016, 18(2), 12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11920-015-0657-y] [PMID: 26781550]
[22]
Malchow, B.; Hasan, A.; Fusar-Poli, P.; Schmitt, A.; Falkai, P.; Wobrock, T. Cannabis abuse and brain morphology in schizophrenia: A review of the available evidence. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 2013, 263(1), 3-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00406-012-0346-3] [PMID: 22907121]
[23]
Bossong, M.G.; Jager, G.; Bhattacharyya, S.; Allen, P. Acute and non-acute effects of cannabis on human memory function: A critical review of neuroimaging studies. Curr. Pharm. Des., 2014, 20(13), 2114-2125.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/13816128113199990436] [PMID: 23829369]
[24]
Myles, N.; Newall, H.; Nielssen, O.; Large, M. The association between cannabis use and earlier age at onset of schizophrenia and other psychoses: Meta-analysis of possible confounding factors. Curr. Pharm. Des., 2012, 18(32), 5055-5069.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138161212802884816] [PMID: 22716150]
[25]
Ortiz-Medina, M.B.; Perea, M.; Torales, J.; Ventriglio, A.; Vitrani, G.; Aguilar, L.; Roncero, C. Cannabis consumption and psychosis or schizophrenia development. Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry, 2018, 64(7), 690-704.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0020764018801690] [PMID: 30442059]
[26]
Patel, S.; Khan, S.M.S.; Hamid, P. The association between cannabis use and schizophrenia: causative or curative? A systematic review. Cureus, 2020, 12(7), e9309.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7759/cureus.9309] [PMID: 32839678]
[27]
van der Meer, F.J.; Velthorst, E.; Meijer, C.J.; Machielsen, M.W.; de Haan, L. Cannabis use in patients at clinical high risk of psychosis: Impact on prodromal symptoms and transition to psychosis. Curr. Pharm. Des., 2012, 18(32), 5036-5044.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138161212802884762] [PMID: 22716158]
[28]
El ghazouani, F.; Aarab, C.; Lahlou, F.; Elrhazi, K.; Aalouane, R.; Rammouz, I. Substances use among inpatients with relapse of schizophrenia: Cross-sectional study. Ann. Med. Psychol. (Paris), 2015, 174(6), 474-478.
[29]
Carey, K.B.; Correia, C.J. Severe mental illness and addictions: Assessment considerations. Addict. Behav., 1998, 23(6), 735-748.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4603(98)00063-X] [PMID: 9801713]
[30]
Ziedonis, D.M.; Smelson, D.; Rosenthal, R.N.; Batki, S.L.; Green, A.I.; Henry, R.J.; Montoya, I.; Parks, J.; Weiss, R.D. Improving the care of individuals with schizophrenia and substance use disorders: Consensus recommendations. J. Psychiatr. Pract., 2005, 11(5), 315-339.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00131746-200509000-00005] [PMID: 16184072]
[31]
Bennett, M.E. Assessment of substance use and substance-use disorders in schizophrenia. Clin. Schizophr. Relat. Psychoses, 2009, 3, 50-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3371/CSRP.3.1.5]
[32]
Drake, R.E.; Osher, F.C.; Wallach, M.A. Alcohol use and abuse in schizophrenia. A prospective community study. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 1989, 177(7), 408-414.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005053-198907000-00004] [PMID: 2746194]
[33]
Bessa, M.A.; Mitsuhiro, S.S.; Chalem, E.; Barros, M.M.; Guinsburg, R.; Laranjeira, R. Underreporting of use of cocaine and marijuana during the third trimester of gestation among pregnant adolescents. Addict. Behav., 2010, 35(3), 266-269.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.10.007] [PMID: 19896774]
[34]
Mieczkowski, T. Urinalysis and hair analysis for illicit drugs of driver applicants and drivers in the trucking industry. J. Forensic Leg. Med., 2010, 17(5), 254-260.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jflm.2010.02.014] [PMID: 20569951]
[35]
Hamilton, I.; Monaghan, M. Cannabis and psychosis: Are we any closer to understanding the relationship? Curr. Psychiatry Rep., 2019, 21(7), 48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11920-019-1044-x] [PMID: 31161275]
[36]
Cook, R.F.; Bernstein, A.D.; Arrington, T.L.; Andrews, C.M.; Marshall, G.A. Methods for assessing drug use prevalence in the workplace: A comparison of self-report, urinalysis, and hair analysis. Int. J. Addict., 1995, 30(4), 403-426.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10826089509048734] [PMID: 7607776]
[37]
Møller, T.; Linaker, O.M. Using brief self-reports and clinician scales to screen for substance use disorders in psychotic patients. Nord. J. Psychiatry, 2010, 64(2), 130-135.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/08039480903274423] [PMID: 19883188]
[38]
Desmarais, S.L.; Van Dorn, R.A.; Sellers, B.G.; Young, M.S.; Swartz, M.S. Accuracy of self-report, biological tests, collateral reports and clinician ratings in identifying substance use disorders among adults with schizophrenia. Psychol. Addict. Behav., 2013, 27(3), 774-787.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0031256] [PMID: 23276310]
[39]
Kedzior, K.K.; Badcock, J.C.; Martin-Iverson, M.T. Validity and consistency of self-reports regarding substance use in general research volunteers, including regular cannabis users and schizophrenia patients. Subst. Use Misuse, 2006, 41(5), 743-750.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10826080500411502] [PMID: 16603458]
[40]
Lazary, J. Psychopharmacological boundaries of schizophrenia with comorbid cannabis use disorder: A critical review. Curr. Pharm. Des., 2012, 18(32), 4890-4896.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138161212802884654] [PMID: 22716145]
[41]
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders In: DSM-IV-TR, 2e éd; Masson: Paris, 2003.
[42]
Kadri, N.; Agoub, M.; El Gnaoui, S.; Alami, KhM.; Hergueta, T.; Moussaoui, D. Moroccan colloquial Arabic version of the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI): Qualitative and quantitative validation. Eur. Psychiatry, 2005, 20(2), 193-195.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2004.11.007] [PMID: 15797707]
[43]
Kay, S.R.; Fiszbein, A.; Opler, L.A. The positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull., 1987, 13(2), 261-276.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/13.2.261] [PMID: 3616518]
[44]
Addington, D.; Addington, J.; Maticka-Tyndale, E. Assessing depression in schizophrenia: The Calgary Depression Scale. Br. J. Psychiatry Suppl., 1993, (22)(Suppl.), 39-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/S0007125000292581] [PMID: 8110442]
[45]
Tijdink, J.K.; van den Heuvel, J.; Vasbinder, E.C.; van de Ven, P.M.; Honig, A. Does on-site urine toxicology screening have an added diagnostic value in psychiatric referrals in an emergency setting? Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry, 2011, 33(6), 626-630.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2011.07.008] [PMID: 21908054]
[46]
Thompson, K.; Kulkarni, J.; Sergejew, A.A. Reliability and validity of a new Medication Adherence Rating Scale (MARS) for the psychoses. Schizophr. Res., 2000, 42(3), 241-247.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0920-9964(99)00130-9] [PMID: 10785582]
[47]
Patton, J.H.; Stanford, M.S.; Barratt, E.S. Factor structure of the Barratt impulsiveness scale. J. Clin. Psychol., 1995, 51(6), 768-774.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(199511)51:6<768:AID-JCLP2270510607>3.0.CO;2-1] [PMID: 8778124]
[48]
Lowe, R.H.; Abraham, T.T.; Darwin, W.D.; Herning, R.; Cadet, J.L.; Huestis, M.A. Extended urinary Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol excretion in chronic cannabis users precludes use as a biomarker of new drug exposure. Drug Alcohol Depend., 2009, 105(1-2), 24-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.05.027] [PMID: 19631478]
[49]
Brady, K.; Casto, S.; Lydiard, R.B.; Malcolm, R.; Arana, G. Substance abuse in an inpatient psychiatric sample. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse, 1991, 17(4), 389-397.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/00952999109001598] [PMID: 1746501]
[50]
Akinci, I.H.; Tarter, R.E.; Kirisci, L. Concordance between verbal report and urine screen of recent marijuana use in adolescents. Addict. Behav., 2001, 26(4), 613-619.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4603(00)00146-5] [PMID: 11456081]
[51]
Fowler, I.L.; Carr, V.J.; Carter, N.T.; Lewin, T.J. Patterns of current and lifetime substance use in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull., 1998, 24(3), 443-455.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033339] [PMID: 9718636]
[52]
Onyango, R.S. Cannabis psychosis in young psychiatric inpatients. Br. J. Addict., 1986, 81(3), 419-423.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1986.tb00348.x] [PMID: 3488755]
[53]
Mathers, D.C.; Ghodse, A.H. Cannabis and psychotic illness. Br. J. Psychiatry, 1992, 161, 648-653.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.161.5.648] [PMID: 1358394]
[54]
Sitharthan, T.; Singh, S.; Kranitis, P.; Currie, J.; Freeman, P.; Murugesan, G.; Ludowici, J. Integrated drug and alcohol intervention: Development of an opportunistic intervention program to reduce alcohol and other substance use among psychiatric patients. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry, 1999, 33(5), 676-683.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/j.1440-1614.1999.00621.x] [PMID: 10544991]
[55]
Hermle, L.; Szlak-Rubin, R.; Täschner, K.L.; Peukert, P. Batra, A Substance use associated disorders: Frequency in patients with schizophrenic and affective psychoses. Nervenarzt, 2013, 84(3), 315-325.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00115-011-3459-4]
[56]
Claassen, C.A.; Gilfillan, S.; Orsulak, P.; Carmody, T.J.; Battaglia, J.; Rush, A.J. Substance use among patients with a psychotic disorder in a psychiatric emergency room. Psychiatr. Serv., 1997, 48(3), 353-358.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ps.48.3.353] [PMID: 9057237]
[57]
Aleman, A.; Hijman, R.; de Haan, E.H.; Kahn, R.S. Memory impairment in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1999, 156(9), 1358-1366.
[PMID: 10484945]
[58]
Benaiges, I.; Prat, G.; Adan, A. Neuropsychological aspects of dual diagnosis. Curr. Drug Abuse Rev., 2010, 3(3), 175-188.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874473711003030175] [PMID: 21054263]
[59]
de Beaurepaire, R.; Lukasiewicz, M.; Beauverie, P.; Castéra, S.; Dagorne, O.; Espaze, R.; Falissard, B.; Giroult, P.; Houery, M.; Mahuzier, G.; Matheron, I.; Niel, P.; Padovani, P.; Poisson, N.; Richier, J.P.; Rocher, J.; Ruetsh, O.; Touzeau, D.; Visinoni, A.; Molimard, R. Comparison of self-reports and biological measures for alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs consumption in psychiatric inpatients. Eur. Psychiatry, 2007, 22(8), 540-548.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2007.05.001] [PMID: 17596918]
[60]
Dervaux, A.; Krebs, M.O.; Laqueille, X. Cannabis-induced cognitive and psychiatric disorders. Bull. Acad Natl. Med., 2014, 198(3), 559-574.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0001-4079(19)31322-6] [PMID: 26427297]
[61]
Ringen, P.A.; Melle, I.; Berg, A.O.; Agartz, I.; Spigset, O.; Simonsen, C.; Sundet, K.; Andreassen, O.A. Cannabis use and premorbid functioning as predictors of poorer neurocognition in schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Schizophr. Res., 2013, 143(1), 84-89.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2012.10.021] [PMID: 23178107]
[62]
Segev, A.; Lev-Ran, S. Neurocognitive functioning and cannabis use in schizophrenia. Curr. Pharm. Des., 2012, 18(32), 4999-5007.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138161212802884799] [PMID: 22716156]
[63]
Coulston, C.M.; Perdices, M.; Tennant, C.C. The neuropsychology of cannabis and other substance use in schizophrenia: Review of the literature and critical evaluation of methodological issues. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry, 2007, 41(11), 869-884.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00048670701634952] [PMID: 17924240]
[64]
Keefe, R.S.; Eesley, C.E.; Poe, M.P. Defining a cognitive function decrement in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry, 2005, 57(6), 688-691.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.003] [PMID: 15780858]
[65]
Chavez-Baldini, U.; Nieman, D.H.; Keestra, A.; Lok, A.; Mocking, R.J.T.; de Koning, P.; Krzhizhanovskaya, V.V.; Bockting, C.L.H.; van Rooijen, G.; Smit, D.J.A.; Sutterland, A.L.; Verweij, K.J.H.; van Wingen, G.; Wigman, J.T.W.; Vulink, N.C.; Denys, D. The relationship between cognitive functioning and psychopathology in patients with psychiatric disorders: A transdiagnostic network analysis. Psychol. Med., 2021, 24, 1-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291721001781] [PMID: 34165065]
[66]
Cohen, K.; Weizman, A.; Weinstein, A. Positive and negative effects of cannabis and cannabinoids on health. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 2019, 105(5), 1139-1147.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cpt.1381] [PMID: 30703255]
[67]
Hájková, M.; Knížková, K.; Siroňová, A.; Keřková, B.; Jonáš, J.; Šustová, P.; Dorazilová, A.; Rodriguez, M. Cognitive performance and lifetime cannabis use in patients with first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Cogn. Neuropsychiatry, 2021, 26(4), 257-272.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13546805.2021.1924649] [PMID: 33973827]
[68]
Hunt, G.E.; Siegfried, N.; Morley, K.; Brooke-Sumner, C.; Cleary, M. Psychosocial interventions for people with both severe mental illness and substance misuse. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2019, 12(12), CD001088.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001088.pub4] [PMID: 31829430]
[69]
Kolliakou, A.; Ismail, K.; Atakan, Z. Why do psychotic patients use cannabis? Case series. Curr. Pharm. Des., 2012, 18(32), 4950-4959.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138161212802884807] [PMID: 22716144]
[70]
Masroor, A.; Khorochkov, A.; Prieto, J. Unraveling the association between schizophrenia and substance use disorder-predictors, mechanisms and treatment modifications: A systematic review. Cureus, 2021, 13(7), e16722.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7759/cureus.16722]
[71]
Scheffler, F.; Du Plessis, S.; Asmal, L.; Kilian, S.; Phahladira, L.; Luckhoff, H.K.; Emsley, R. Cannabis use and hippocampal subfield volumes in males with a first episode of a schizophrenia spectrum disorder and healthy controls. Schizophr. Res., 2021, 231, 13-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2021.02.017] [PMID: 33740561]
[72]
Bahorik, A.L.; Newhill, C.E.; Queen, C.C.; Eack, S.M. Under-reporting of drug use among individuals with schizophrenia: Prevalence and predictors. Psychol. Med., 2014, 44(1), 61-69.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291713000548] [PMID: 23551851]
[73]
Woo, B.K.; Chen, W. Substance misuse among older patients in psychiatric emergency service. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry, 2010, 32(1), 99-101.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2009.08.002] [PMID: 20114135]
[74]
Singh, S.; Balhara, Y.P.S. A review of Indian research on co-occurring cannabis use disorders& psychiatric disorders. Indian J. Med. Res., 2017, 146(2), 186-195.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_791_15] [PMID: 29265019]
[75]
Palmer, B.W.; Heaton, R.K.; Paulsen, J.S.; Kuck, J.; Braff, D.; Harris, M.J.; Zisook, S.; Jeste, D.V. Is it possible to be schizophrenic yet neuropsychologically normal? Neuropsychology, 1997, 11(3), 437-446.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.11.3.437] [PMID: 9223148]
[76]
Lucke-Wold, B.; Nolan, R.; Nwafor, D.; Nguyen, L.; Cheyuo, C.; Turner, R.; Rosen, C.; Marsh, R. Post-traumatic stress disorder delineating the progression and underlying mechanisms following blast traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci Neuropharmacol, 2018, 4(1), 118.
[PMID: 29888766]
[77]
Turner, R.C.; Lucke-Wold, B.P.; Robson, M.J.; Omalu, B.I.; Petraglia, A.L.; Bailes, J.E. Repetitive traumatic brain injury and development of chronic traumatic encephalopathy: A potential role for biomarkers in diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment? Front. Neurol., 2013, 3, 186.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2012.00186] [PMID: 23335911]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
31
2
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy