Generic placeholder image

Current Respiratory Medicine Reviews

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1573-398X
ISSN (Online): 1875-6387

Review Article

Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Pharmacological Status of Asthma

Author(s): Ruchika Garg*, Mona Piplani, Yogendra Singh and Yogesh Joshi

Volume 18, Issue 4, 2022

Published on: 29 September, 2022

Page: [247 - 258] Pages: 12

DOI: 10.2174/1573398X18666220526164329

Price: $65

Abstract

In India, asthma is a prevalent respiratory condition marked by frequent blowouts and a distinctive spread pattern. Respiratory diseases are the main cause of death globally. In India, asthma is more common, particularly in the North Indian states of Delhi and Uttar Pradesh. Our primary objective in this review is to study asthma medication therapy and its associated complications. The epidemiology, etiology, pathophysiology, mechanism of airway inflammation, classification, and diagnosis of asthma are all illustrated in the current work. Additionally, we have gathered state-bystate information on asthma for the last five years in Northern India. Asthma diagnosis and management are also discussed in accordance with the guidelines of many agencies, including NICE, BTS, SIGN, and WHO.

Keywords: Asthma, prevalence, epidemiology, classification, diagnosis, guidelines.

Graphical Abstract
[1]
Kudo, M.; Ishigatsubo, Y.; Aoki, I. Pathology of asthma. Front. Microbiol., 2013, 4(263), 263.
[PMID: 24032029]
[2]
National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. Expert Panel Report 3 (EPR-3). Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma-Summary Report 2007. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2007, 120(5), S94-S138.
[3]
Bousquet, J.; Jeffery, P.K.; Busse, W.W.; Johnson, M.; Vignola, A.M. Asthma. From bronchoconstriction to airways inflammation and remodeling. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 2000, 161(5), 1720-1745.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/ajrccm.161.5.9903102] [PMID: 10806180]
[4]
Ishmael, F.T. The inflammatory response in the pathogenesis of asthma. J. Am. Osteopath. Assoc., 2011, 111(11)(Suppl. 7), S11-S17.
[PMID: 22162373]
[5]
Jennifer, Y.S.; Albert, J.; Mammary, K.S. Asthma diagnosis and treatment. EMJ Division Thoracic Med Surgery, 2018, 3(4), 111-121.
[6]
Stern, J.; Pier, J.; Litonjua, A.A. Asthma epidemiology and risk factors. Semin. Immunopathol., 2020, 42(1), 5-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00281-020-00785-1] [PMID: 32020334]
[7]
Boulet, L.P. Influence of comorbid conditions on asthma. Eur. Respir. J., 2009, 33(4), 897-906.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00121308] [PMID: 19336592]
[8]
Dharmage, S.C.; Perret, J.L.; Custovic, A. Epidemiology of asthma in children and adults. Front Pediatr., 2019, 7(7), 246-250.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fped.2019.00246] [PMID: 31275909]
[9]
Guinee, D.G. Asthma and related eosinophilic infiltrates. In: Dail and Hammar’s Pulmonary Pathology; Thomashefsky, J.F.; Cagle, P.T.; Farver, C.F.; Fraire, A.E., Eds.; Springer, 2008; pp. 561-599.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-68792-6_15]
[10]
Carroll, N.; Cooke, C.; James, A. The distribution of eosinophils and lymphocytes in the large and small airways of asthmatics. Eur. Respir. J., 1997, 10(2), 292-300.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09031936.97.10020292] [PMID: 9042623]
[11]
Bossley, C.J.; Fleming, L.; Gupta, A. Pediatric severe asthma is characterized by eosinophilia and remodeling without T(H)2 cytokines. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2012, 129(4), 974-82.e13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2012.01.059] [PMID: 22385633]
[12]
Marseglia, G.L.; Avanzini, M.A.; Caimmi, S. Passive exposure to smoke results in defective interferon-gamma production by adenoids in children with recurrent respiratory infections. J. Interferon Cytokine Res., 2009, 29(8), 427-432.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/jir.2008.0108] [PMID: 19514840]
[13]
Marseglia, G.L.; Caimmi, S.; Marseglia, A. Rhinosinusitis and asthma. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol., 2010, 23(1), 29-31.
[PMID: 20152076]
[14]
Del-Río-Navarro, B.E.; Berber, A.; Reyes-Noriega, N. Global asthma network phase I study in Mexico: Prevalence of asthma symptoms, risk factors and altitude associations-a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open Respir. Res., 2020, 7(1), 1-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjresp-2020-000658] [PMID: 33268340]
[15]
Bruce, F.D. Allergic asthma web sites., Available from: https://www.webmd.com/asthma/guide/ (Accessed on April 16, 2021).
[16]
Al-Thamiri, D.; Al-Kubaisy, W.; Ali, S.H. Asthma prevalence and severity among primary-school children in Baghdad. East. Mediterr. Health J., 2005, 11(1-2), 79-86.
[PMID: 16532675]
[17]
Karunasekera, K.A.; Perera, K.P.; Perera, M.T.; Abeynarayana, J. Prevalence of asthma and atopic symptoms in children aged 5-11years. Sri Lanka J. Child Health, 2003, 32, 11-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4038/sljch.v32i1.737]
[18]
Masoli, M.; Fabian, D.; Holt, S.; Beasley, R. The global burden of asthma: Executive summary of the GINA Dissemination Committee report. Allergy, 2004, 59(5), 469-478.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1398-9995.2004.00526.x] [PMID: 15080825]
[19]
Tarlo, S.M.; Balmes, J.; Balkissoon, R. Diagnosis and management of work-related asthma. Chest, 2008, 134(3), 1S-41S.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.08-0201] [PMID: 18779187]
[20]
Urrutia, I.; Aguirre, U.; Sunyer, J. Changes in the prevalence of asthma in the Spanish cohort of the European Community Respiratory Health Survey (ECRHS-II). Arch. Bronconeumol., 2007, 43(8), 425-430.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1579-2129(07)60098-6] [PMID: 17692242]
[21]
Morris, J.M. What-is-the-worldwide-prevalence-of-asthma 2020. Available from: https://www.medscape.com/answers/296301-7945/ (Accessed on June 20, 2021).
[22]
World Health Organization Bronchial Asthma. Web sites., 2017. Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs206/en (Accessed on June 28, 2021).
[23]
Ellwood, P.; Asher, M.I.; Billo, N.E. The Global Asthma Network rationale and methods for Phase I global surveillance: Prevalence, severity, management and risk factors. Eur. Respir. J., 2017, 49(1), 1-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/13993003.01605-2016] [PMID: 28077477]
[24]
Mattiuzzi, C.; Lippi, G. Worldwide asthma epidemiology: Insights from the Global Health Data Exchange database. Int. Forum Allergy Rhinol., 2020, 10(1), 75-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/alr.22464] [PMID: 31645084]
[25]
Krishna, M.T.; Mahesh, P.A.; Vedanthan, P.K.; Mehta, V.; Moitra, S.; Christopher, D.J. The burden of allergic diseases in the Indian subcontinent: Barriers and challenges. Lancet Glob. Health, 2020, 8(4), e478-e479.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30061-9] [PMID: 32199115]
[26]
Singh, S.; Sharma, B.B.; Sharma, S.K.; Sabir, M.; Singh, V. Prevalence and severity of asthma among Indian school children aged between 6 and 14 years: Associations with parental smoking and traffic pollution. J. Asthma, 2016, 53(3), 238-244.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/02770903.2015.1087558] [PMID: 26365004]
[27]
Li, J.; Ogorodova, L.M.; Mahesh, P.A. Comparative study of food allergies in children from China, India, and Russia: The EuroPrevall-INCO surveys. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract., 2020, 8(4), 1349-1358.e16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2019.11.042] [PMID: 31857266]
[28]
Jindal, S.K.; Aggarwal, A.N.; Gupta, D. Indian study on epidemiology of asthma, respiratory symptoms and chronic bronchitis in adults (INSEARCH). Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis., 2012, 16(9), 1270-1277.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5588/ijtld.12.0005] [PMID: 22871327]
[29]
Zein, J.G.; Erzurum, S.C. Asthma is different in women. Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep., 2015, 15(6), 28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11882-015-0528-y] [PMID: 26141573]
[30]
Sykes, A.; Johnston, S.L. Etiology of asthma exacerbations. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2008, 122(4), 685-688.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2008.08.017] [PMID: 19014758]
[31]
Douwes, J.; Gibson, P.; Pekkanen, J.; Pearce, N. Non-eosinophilic asthma: Importance and possible mechanisms. Thorax, 2002, 57(7), 643-648.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/thorax.57.7.643] [PMID: 12096210]
[32]
Nakagome, K.; Nagata, M. Pathogenesis of airway inflammation in bronchial asthma. Auris Nasus Larynx, 2011, 38(5), 555-563.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anl.2011.01.011] [PMID: 21334836]
[33]
Haldar, P.; Pavord, I.D.; Shaw, D.E. Cluster analysis and clinical asthma phenotypes. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 2008, 178(3), 218-224.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200711-1754OC] [PMID: 18480428]
[34]
Amin, K.A.M. Allergic respiratory inflammation and remodeling. Turk. Thorac. J., 2015, 16(3), 133-140.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5152/ttd.2015.4942] [PMID: 29404091]
[35]
Ponikau, J.U.; Sherris, D.A.; Kephart, G.M. Features of airway remodeling and eosinophilic inflammation in chronic rhinosinusitis: Is the histopathology similar to asthma? J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2003, 112(5), 877-882.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2003.08.009] [PMID: 14610473]
[36]
Bento, A.M.; Hershenson, M.B. Airway remodeling: Potential contributions of subepithelial fibrosis and airway smooth muscle hypertrophy/hyperplasia to airway narrowing in asthma. Allergy Asthma Proc., 1998, 19(6), 353-358.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2500/108854198778612672] [PMID: 9876774]
[37]
Foong, R.X.; du Toit, G.; Fox, A.T. Asthma, food allergy, and how they relate to each other. Front Pediatr., 2017, 5(89), 89.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fped.2017.00089] [PMID: 28536690]
[38]
Papi, A.; Brightling, C.; Pedersen, S.E.; Reddel, H.K. Asthma. Lancet, 2018, 391(10122), 783-800.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)33311-1] [PMID: 29273246]
[39]
Stevenson, D.D.; Szczeklik, A. Clinical and pathologic perspectives on aspirin sensitivity and asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2006, 118(4), 773-786.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2006.07.024] [PMID: 17030227]
[40]
Lemanske, R.F., Jr; Busse, W.W. 6. Asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2003, 111(2), S502-S519.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1067/mai.2003.94] [PMID: 12592297]
[41]
Holgate, S.T.; Polosa, R. The mechanisms, diagnosis, and management of severe asthma in adults. Lancet, 2006, 368(9537), 780-793.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69288-X] [PMID: 16935689]
[42]
Bonsignore, M.R.; Profita, M.; Gagliardo, R. Advances in asthma pathophysiology: Stepping forward from the Maurizio Vignola experience. Eur. Respir. Rev., 2015, 24(135), 30-39.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09059180.10011114]
[43]
Persson, C. Lysis of primed eosinophils in severe asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2013, 132(6), 1459-1460.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2013.09.036] [PMID: 24184146]
[44]
Gleich, G.J. Mechanisms of eosinophil-associated inflammation. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2000, 105(4), 651-663.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1067/mai.2000.105712] [PMID: 10756213]
[45]
Bochner, B.S.; Undem, B.J.; Lichtenstein, L.M. Immunological aspects of allergic asthma. Annu. Rev. Immunol., 1994, 12, 295-335.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.iy.12.040194.001455] [PMID: 8011284]
[46]
Shah, S.A.; Ishinaga, H.; Takeuchi, K. Pathogenesis of eosinophilic chronic rhinosinusitis. J. Inflamm. (Lond.), 2016, 13(11), 11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12950-016-0121-8] [PMID: 27053925]
[47]
Janssens, T.; Ritz, T. Perceived triggers of asthma: Key to symptom perception and management. Clin. Exp. Allergy, 2013, 43(9), 1000-1008.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cea.12138] [PMID: 23957335]
[48]
Durrani, S.R.; Viswanathan, R.K.; Busse, W.W. What effect does asthma treatment have on airway remodeling? Current perspectives. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2011, 128(3), 439-448.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2011.06.002] [PMID: 21752441]
[49]
Chung, K.F. Airway smooth muscle cells: Contributing to and regulating airway mucosal inflammation? Eur. Respir. J., 2000, 15(5), 961-968.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1034/j.1399-3003.2000.15e26.x] [PMID: 10853867]
[50]
Peters, M.C.; Kerr, S.; Dunican, E.M. Refractory airway type 2 inflammation in a large subgroup of asthmatic patients treated with inhaled corticosteroids. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2019, 143(1), 104-113.e14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2017.12.1009] [PMID: 29524537]
[51]
Woodruff, P.G.; Modrek, B.; Choy, D.F. T-helper type 2-driven inflammation defines major subphenotypes of asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 2009, 180(5), 388-395.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200903-0392OC] [PMID: 19483109]
[52]
Kuo, C.S.; Pavlidis, S.; Loza, M. Pandis Iet al.A transcriptome-driven analysis of epithelial brushings and bronchial biopsies to define asthma phenotypes in U-BIOPRED. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 2017, 195(4), 443-455.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201512-2452OC] [PMID: 27580351]
[53]
Pavord, I.D.; Beasley, R.; Agusti, A. After asthma: Redefining airways diseases. Lancet, 2018, 391(10118), 350-400.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30879-6] [PMID: 28911920]
[54]
Soto-Campos, J.G.; Plaza, V.; Soriano, J.B. Causes of death in asthma, COPD and non-respiratory hospitalized patients: A multicentric study. BMC Pulm. Med., 2013, 13(73), 73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2466-13-73] [PMID: 24321217]
[55]
Solomon, G.; Humphreys, E.; Miller, M. Asthma and the environment: Connecting the dots. Contemp. Pediatr., 2004, 21, 73.
[56]
Willis-Owen, S.A.G.; Cookson, W.O.C.; Moffatt, M.F. The genetics and genomics of asthma. Annu. Rev. Genomics Hum. Genet., 2018, 19, 223-246.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genom-083117-021651] [PMID: 30169121]
[57]
Baines, K.J.; Simpson, J.L.; Bowden, N.A.; Scott, R.J.; Gibson, P.G. Differential gene expression and cytokine production from neutrophils in asthma phenotypes. Eur. Respir. J., 2010, 35(3), 522-531.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00027409] [PMID: 19797135]
[58]
Raoufy, M.R.; Ghafari, T.; Darooei, R. Classification of asthma based on nonlinear analysis of breathing pattern. PLoS One, 2016, 11(1), e0147976.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147976] [PMID: 26824900]
[59]
Wells, D.; Sullivan, D. Asthma Classification Web sites., Available from: https://www.healthline.com/health/asthma/asthma-classification#severe-persistent (Accessed on April 6, 2021).
[60]
Classification of Asthma. Web sites, Available from: https://www.uofmhealth.org/health-library/hw161158 (Accessed on April 6, 2021).
[61]
Padem, N.; Saltoun, C. Classification of asthma. Allergy Asthma Proc., 2019, 40(6), 385-388.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2500/aap.2019.40.4253] [PMID: 31690376]
[62]
World Health organization Asthma. Web sites, Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/asthma (Accessed on May 20, 2021).
[63]
Randolph, C. Exercise-induced asthma: Update on pathophysiology, clinical diagnosis, and treatment. Curr. Probl. Pediatr., 1997, 27(2), 53-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0045-9380(97)80002-3] [PMID: 9059761]
[64]
Brazeir, Y. Types, causes, and diagnosis of asthma., Available from: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323523(Accessed on April 10, 2021).
[65]
de Nijs, S.B.; Venekamp, L.N.; Bel, E.H.; Bel, E.H. Adult-onset asthma: Is it really different? Eur. Respir. Rev., 2013, 22(127), 44-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09059180.00007112] [PMID: 23457164]
[66]
Bush, A.; Cutrera, R.; Piacentini, G.; Santamaria, F.; Ullmann, N. Editorial: Difficult and Severe Asthma in Children. Front Pediatr., 2019, 7(205), 205.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fped.2019.00205] [PMID: 31157198]
[67]
Sarkissian, D.C. American College of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology: "About Asthma: Diagnosing”. Available from: https://www.webmd.com/asthma/diagnosing-asthma-tests(Accessed on May 22, 2021).
[68]
Mertz, TL Recent developments in asthma research, diagnosis, and treatment J Am Osteopath Assoc, 2011, 111(11)(Suppl. 7), S27-S29, S32..
[PMID: 22162376]
[69]
Hargreave, F.E.; Nair, P. The definition and diagnosis of asthma. Clin. Exp. Allergy, 2009, 39(11), 1652-1658.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2009.03321.x] [PMID: 19622089]
[70]
Eigen, H. Differential diagnosis and treatment of wheezing and asthma in young children. Clin. Pediatr. (Phila.), 2008, 47(8), 735-743.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0009922808315662] [PMID: 18824636]
[71]
Leo, H. Diagnosing asthma in Children American Academy of Paediatrics Section on Allergy and Immunology Web sites., Available from: https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/allergies-asthma/Pages/Diagnosing-Asthma.aspx (Accessed on May 27, 2021).
[72]
Asthma Apollo hospital Web sites. Available from: https://www.apollohospitals.com/patient-care/health-and-lifestyle/diseases-and-conditions/asthma (Accessed on June 5, 2021).
[73]
Papi, A.; Blasi, F.; Canonica, G.W.; Morandi, L.; Richeldi, L.; Rossi, A. Treatment strategies for asthma: Reshaping the concept of asthma management. Allergy Asthma Clin. Immunol., 2020, 16(75), 75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13223-020-00472-8] [PMID: 32944030]
[74]
Rabe, K.F.; Vermeire, P.A.; Soriano, J.B.; Maier, W.C. Clinical management of asthma in 1999: The Asthma Insights and Reality in Europe (AIRE) study. Eur. Respir. J., 2000, 16(5), 802-807.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00.16580200] [PMID: 11153575]
[75]
Price, D.; Fletcher, M.; van der Molen, T. Asthma control and management in 8,000 European patients: The REcognise Asthma and LInk to Symptoms and Experience (REALISE) survey. NPJ Prim. Care Respir. Med., 2014, 24, 14009.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/npjpcrm.2014.9] [PMID: 24921985]
[76]
Plumb, D.C. Albuterol Sulfate. Plumb’s Veterinary Drug Handbook, 7th ed; Wiley: Stockholm, Wisconsin Ames Iowa, 2011, pp. 24-25.
[77]
Hatfield, H. Asthma the rescue inhaler now a cornerstone of asthma treatment, 2017. WebMD. Archived from the original on 16 July 2017 (Accessed on June 5, 2017).
[78]
Levalbuterol Web sites. Available from: https://reference.medscape.com/drug/xopenex-hfa-levalbuterol-343438 (Accessed on June 5, 2021).
[79]
World Health Organization. World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 22nd list (2021). Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/345533., 2021. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines (Accessed on June 5, 2021).
[80]
Medline Plus, U.S. National Library of Medicines Web sites., Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a615019.html (Accessed on June 5, 2021).
[81]
Karki, S.; Mohanty, I.R.; Potdar, P.V.; Deshmukh, Y.A.; Shah, R.C.; Pokhrel, B.R. Assessment of prescribing patterns of drugs used in adult asthma patients at a Tertiary Care hospital. Int. J Curr Res Med Sci, 2017, 3(6), 169-175.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.22192/ijcrms.2017.03.06.022]
[82]
Weidinger, P.; Nilsson, J.L.; Lindblad, U. Medication prescribing for asthma and COPD: A register-based cross-sectional study in Swedish primary care. BMC Fam. Pract., 2014, 15(54), 54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2296-15-54] [PMID: 24666507]
[83]
Levy, B.D.; Noel, P.J.; Freemer, M.M. Future research directions in asthma. An NHLBI working group report. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 2015, 192(11), 1366-1372.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201505-0963WS] [PMID: 26305520]
[84]
Jain, S.; Upadhyaya, P.; Goyal, J. A systematic review of prescription pattern monitoring studies and their effectiveness in promoting rational use of medicines. Perspect. Clin. Res., 2015, 6(2), 86-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2229-3485.154005] [PMID: 25878953]
[85]
Godse, K.; Mehta, A.; Patil, S.; Gautam, M.; Nadkarni, N. Omalizumab-A review. Indian J. Dermatol., 2015, 60(4), 381-384.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0019-5154.160490] [PMID: 26288408]
[86]
Hom, S.; Pisano, M. Reslizumab (Cinqair): An Interleukin-5 antagonist for severe asthma of the eosinophilic phenotype. P&T, 2017, 42(9), 564-568.
[87]
Yancey, S.W.; Ortega, H.G.; Keene, O.N. Meta-analysis of asthma-related hospitalization in mepolizumab studies of severe eosinophilic asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2017, 139(4), 1167-1175.e2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2016.08.008] [PMID: 27726946]
[88]
National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Summary Ciclesonide for CID, Available from: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Ciclesonide (Accessed on Feb 17, 2022).
[89]
Menzies-Gow, A.; Corren, J.; Bourdin, A. Tezepelumab in adults and adolescents with severe, uncontrolled asthma. N. Engl. J. Med., 2021, 384(19), 1800-1809.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2034975] [PMID: 33979488]
[90]
Green, R.H.; Brightling, C.E.; Pavord, I.D.; Wardlaw, A.J. Management of asthma in adults: Current therapy and future directions. Postgrad. Med. J., 2003, 79(931), 259-267.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/pmj.79.931.259] [PMID: 12782771]
[91]
Reddel, H. Rational prescribing for ongoing management of asthma in adults. Aust. Prescr., 2012, 35, 43-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18773/austprescr.2012.022]
[92]
Chavasse, R.; Scott, S. The differences in acute management of asthma in adults and children. Front Pediatr., 2019, 7(64), 64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fped.2019.00064] [PMID: 30931286]
[93]
Short, S.; Bashir, H. Health Care Guideline Diagnosis and Treatment of Respiratory Illness in Children and Adults, 2017. Available from: https://www.icsi.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Asthma.pdf (Accessed on Sep 22, 2021).
[94]
Sheffer, A.L.; Taggart, V.S. The national asthma education program. expert panel report guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. National heart, lung, and blood institute. Med. Care, 1993, 31(3), MS20-MS28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005650-199303001-00005] [PMID: 8450685]
[95]
Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN) 50 handbook 2021. Available from: www.sign.ac.uk (Accessed on Oct 12, 2021).
[96]
White, J.; Paton, J.Y.; Niven, R.; Pinnock, H. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma: A look at the key differences between BTS/SIGN and NICE. Thorax, 2018, 73(3), 293-297.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/thoraxjnl-2017-211189]
[97]
Health improvement Scotland 2016 BTS/SIGN British Guideline for the management of asthma. 2016. SIGN 153 Web sites. 2016. Available from: https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/asthma/
[98]
Szefler, S.J. Is it time to revise the asthma guidelines? J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2011, 128(5), 937-938.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2011.09.004] [PMID: 21943941]
[99]
Emergency Asthma Treatment American Academy of Asthma, Allergy, and Immunology Web sites. Available from: https://www.webmd.com/asthma/asthma-emergency-treatment (Accessed on Oct 12, 2021).
[100]
Bateman, E.D.; Hurd, S.S.; Barnes, P.J. Global strategy for asthma management and prevention: GINA executive summary. Eur. Respir. J., 2008, 31(1), 143-178.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00138707] [PMID: 18166595]
[101]
Rai, S.P.; Patil, A.P.; Vardhan, V.; Marwah, V.; Pethe, M.; Pandey, I.M. Best treatment guidelines for bronchial asthma. Med. J. Armed Forces India, 2007, 63(3), 264-268.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0377-1237(07)80151-1] [PMID: 27408013]
[102]
Nagarajan, S.; Ahmad, S.; Quinn, M. Allergic sensitization and clinical outcomes in urban children with asthma, 2013-2016. Allergy Asthma Proc., 2018, 39(4), 281-288.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2500/aap.2018.39.4147] [PMID: 30095393]
[103]
Adir, Y; Saliba, W; Beurnier, A; Humbert, M. Asthma and COVID19: An update. European respiratory review: An official journal of the Eur Respir Society 2021, 30(162), 1-11.
[104]
Lombardi, C.; Gani, F.; Berti, A.; Comberiati, P.; Peroni, D.; Cottini, M. Asthma and COVID-19: A dangerous liaison? Asthma Res. Pract., 2021, 7(1), 9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40733-021-00075-z] [PMID: 34261543]
[105]
Ejaz, H.; Alsrhani, A.; Zafar, A. COVID-19 and comorbidities: Deleterious impact on infected patients. J. Infect. Public Health, 2020, 13(12), 1833-1839.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2020.07.014] [PMID: 32788073]
[106]
Garg, S.; Kim, L.; Whitaker, M. Hospitalization rates and characteristics of patients hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 - COVID-NET, 14 States, March 1-30, 2020. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 2020, 69(15), 458-464.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6915e3] [PMID: 32298251]
[107]
Beurnier, A.; Jutant, E.M.; Jevnikar, M. Characteristics and outcomes of asthmatic patients with COVID-19 pneumonia who require hospitalisation. Eur. Respir. J., 2020, 56(5), 1-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/13993003.01875-2020] [PMID: 32732333]
[108]
Grandbastien, M.; Piotin, A.; Godet, J. SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in hospitalized asthmatic patients did not induce severe exacerbation. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract., 2020, 8(8), 2600-2607.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2020.06.032] [PMID: 32603901]
[109]
Vardavas, C.I.; Nikitara, K. COVID-19 and smoking: A systematic review of the evidence. Tob. Induc. Dis., 2020, 18(20), 20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18332/tid/119324] [PMID: 32206052]
[110]
Singanayagam, A.; Glanville, N.; Girkin, J.L. Corticosteroid suppression of antiviral immunity increases bacterial loads and mucus production in COPD exacerbations. Nat. Commun., 2018, 9(1), 2229.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-04574-1] [PMID: 29884817]
[111]
Yang, M.; Zhang, Y.; Chen, H.; Lin, J.; Zeng, J.; Xu, Z. Inhaled corticosteroids and risk of upper respiratory tract infection in patients with asthma: A meta-analysis. Infection, 2019, 47(3), 377-385.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s15010-018-1229-y] [PMID: 30298471]
[112]
Esquivel, A.; Busse, W.W.; Calatroni, A. Effects of omalizumab on rhinovirus infections, illnesses, and exacerbations of asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 2017, 196(8), 985-992.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201701-0120OC] [PMID: 28608756]
[113]
Morais-Almeida, M.; Aguiar, R.; Martin, B. COVID-19, asthma, and biological therapies: What we need to know. World Allergy Organ. J., 2020, 13(5), 100126.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.waojou.2020.100126] [PMID: 32426090]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy